Free Essays on Author Studies Using Websites

I began the assignment by clicking on Resources for K-12 Teacher’s Literature on the resources for Teachers web page. After browsing through a couple of sights, the Children’s Literature Web Guide seemed to have a few useful links. Here I found Bantam Doubleday Dell Teacher’s Center most helpful. I also browsed through the Children’s Literature Association of Utah web site. It too had many useful links like the Newbery Medal Home Page, Caldecott Medal Home Page, Reading Corner, Book Lists of Children’s Literature, 101 Out of this World books for Kids Ages 8 – 13, Amazon Books, and Powell’s Books. Many of these sights listed the age level and a short synopsis of the book. Looking at the Do’s and Don’ts site found on the first web page, I discovered Jim Trelease’s Book Lists. It had many of the above sites plus more useful information. Finally, the Doucette Index - K-12 Literarture Based Teaching Index was ver y useful in finding out more information about a particular book. I chose the books for my book list in a variety of ways. I started with authors that were familiar to my students and myself, like Beverly Cleary and E. B. White. Some books just caught my interest like It’s All Greek To Me by Jon Scieszka since all my students are of Greek decent. Of course I wanted a few award winning books so my students could see examples of excellent story telling. After reading these books I plan to have the students discuss the reasons they think the book won the award and express their opinions on whether or not the book should have received the award. I also selected books by themes like â€Å"chocolate† or â€Å"adjusting to third grade.† I choose a few books because their setting is one of the countries the third grade studies in social studies. Some books were selected because they are a part of a series. If they liked the first book, hopefully they will want to read more of the series! Since the ch... Free Essays on Author Studies Using Websites Free Essays on Author Studies Using Websites I began the assignment by clicking on Resources for K-12 Teacher’s Literature on the resources for Teachers web page. After browsing through a couple of sights, the Children’s Literature Web Guide seemed to have a few useful links. Here I found Bantam Doubleday Dell Teacher’s Center most helpful. I also browsed through the Children’s Literature Association of Utah web site. It too had many useful links like the Newbery Medal Home Page, Caldecott Medal Home Page, Reading Corner, Book Lists of Children’s Literature, 101 Out of this World books for Kids Ages 8 – 13, Amazon Books, and Powell’s Books. Many of these sights listed the age level and a short synopsis of the book. Looking at the Do’s and Don’ts site found on the first web page, I discovered Jim Trelease’s Book Lists. It had many of the above sites plus more useful information. Finally, the Doucette Index - K-12 Literarture Based Teaching Index was ver y useful in finding out more information about a particular book. I chose the books for my book list in a variety of ways. I started with authors that were familiar to my students and myself, like Beverly Cleary and E. B. White. Some books just caught my interest like It’s All Greek To Me by Jon Scieszka since all my students are of Greek decent. Of course I wanted a few award winning books so my students could see examples of excellent story telling. After reading these books I plan to have the students discuss the reasons they think the book won the award and express their opinions on whether or not the book should have received the award. I also selected books by themes like â€Å"chocolate† or â€Å"adjusting to third grade.† I choose a few books because their setting is one of the countries the third grade studies in social studies. Some books were selected because they are a part of a series. If they liked the first book, hopefully they will want to read more of the series! Since the ch...

Profile of Serial Rapist and Torturer David Parker Ray

Profile of Serial Rapist and Torturer David Parker Ray David Parker Ray, also known as the Toy-Box Killer, was a serial rapist and torturer and suspected serial killer. Police in Arizona and New Mexico suspect that Ray was responsible for the murders of at least 60 people, based on accusations by his accomplices. Ray earned the moniker the Toy-Box Killer because he spent $100,000 sound-proofing and stocking a truck trailer with devices used to torture his victims. He referred to the trailer as the toy box. Early Years Ray was born in Belen, New Mexico, on November 6, 1939. His parents, Cecil and Nettie Ray, were poor and lived with Netties parents on a small ranch where they raised David and his younger sister Peggy. Cecil was an abusive drunk who lashed out at his wife and children. He eventually left Nettie and the children when David was 10 years old. After Cecil divorced Nettie, the decision was made to send David and Peggy to live with their grandparents on their rural ranch in Mountainair, New Mexico. Life for David and Peggy took a dramatic turn. Their grandfather, Ethan Ray, was nearing 70 years old and lived with strict standards which he expected the grandchildren to follow. Failure to follow his rules would often result in the children being physically disciplined. At school David, who was tall, shy and awkward, had a hard time fitting in and was often bullied by his classmates. Much of his spare time was spent alone drinking and using drugs. It was during this time that David Ray began to develop his secret fascination of sadomasochism. David Rays sister discovered his collection of erotic photographs of acts of bondage and sadomasochistic drawings. After high school, he worked as an auto mechanic before joining the Army, where he again worked as a mechanic. He received an honorable discharge from the Army. Years later, he told his fiancà © that his first victim was a woman he tied to a tree and tortured and murdered when he had just become a teenager. Whether this was true or materialized out of his constant fantasies of bondage and torture is unknown. The Escape On March 22, 1999, in Elephant Butte, New Mexico, 22-year-old Cynthia Vigil, covered in blood, naked and with a metal choker collar padlocked around her neck, was running for her life. She had no idea where she was and desperate to find help before her captors caught up with her, she spotted a mobile home with the front door opened. Cynthia ran inside, pleading for help from the shocked homeowner. The police arrived shortly afterward and listened as Cynthia told her terrifying story of kidnap and torture. Held as a Sex Slave She told them that a man and a woman had kidnapped her and held her as a sex slave for three days. There she was raped and tortured with whips, medical instruments, electric shock, and other sexual instruments until she managed to escape. The bruises, burns and puncture wounds that covered her body backed up her story. According to Cynthia, she met her captors in  Albuquerque  while working as a prostitute. The man had offered her $20 in exchange for oral sex and they went to his RV. Inside there was a woman who helped the man tie and gag her, along with placing a metal collar around her neck. They drove for over an hour before stopping and dragged Cynthia inside a trailer where she was chained to a bedpost. She then listened to an audiotape describing what would be happening to her while she was there. On the tape, a man she assumed was David Ray, explained that she was now a sex slave and she was to refer to him only as master and the woman with him as mistress and never to speak unless spoken to first. She would be naked and chained up, fed, and cared for like a dog. She would be tortured, raped, perform for friends while having sex with animals, subjected to anal penetration with large dildos and placed in various positions which exposed the private areas of her body. She was also warned that she was one of many slaves that had been held captive and many of those who did not cooperate, died. Fighting For Her Life A FBI team investigates the toy box trailer. Joe Raedle / Getty Images By the third day of her captivity, Cynthia had been exposed to electric shocks, endured being cattle prodded, whipped, and had medical instruments and large dildos inserted into her vagina and rectum. She was hung up and raped repeatedly by David Ray. Cynthia was certain that soon she was going to be killed. She managed to escape after Ray left the trailer and she got a hold of the keys and unlocked herself from the chain. She tried to call 9-1-1 but was interrupted by her female captor. The two fought and Cynthia managed to grab an ice pick and stab the woman in the neck. She then ran from the house and kept running until she found the mobile home. Cynthia provided the police with the location of the trailer, but they were already at the home after the 9-1-1 call abruptly ended. Inside The Toy Box David Parker Ray and his girlfriend, Cindy Lea Hendy were apprehended. During questioning the two stuck to the same story - that Cynthia was a heroin addict and they were trying to help her detoxify. A search of Rays property told another story. Inside Rays mobile home the police found evidence that backed up Cynthias story, including the audiotape. Inside another trailer that sat next to the mobile home was what detectives assumed was the Toy Box as Ray called it. Inside were various instruments of torture, drawn pictures of how Ray would torture his victims and various restraints, pulleys, whips, and sexual devices. However, the most shocking piece of evidence was a videotape of a woman being tortured by the couple. Ray and Hendy were arrested and charged with multiple counts including kidnapping. As the investigation continued, additional evidence revealed that there had been many more victims and more than just Ray and Hendy involved in the crimes. Investigators also suspected that along with Ray being a serial rapist, he was also likely a serial killer. Angelica Montano The problem that the authorities faced was Cynthias credibility. She was an admitted prostitute and there was no way to prove that she was not there willingly. But then, after the newspapers ran the story about the couples arrest, another victim came forward. Angelica Montano told police that she had also been kidnapped, raped and tortured by Ray and Hendy for three days, then drugged and left by a highway out in the desert. She was found by the police, but for unknown reasons, her complaint against the couple was never followed up. She decided to pursue it again after she saw that the two had been arrested. Kelly Garrett Investigators also found the woman that was on the videotape after they identified a tattoo on her ankle. Kelly Garrett, who was found in Colorado, had been married just a few days before she was held captive by Ray and his daughter, Jesse Ray. Jesse Ray, who was friends with Garrett, took her to a bar and drugged the beer that she was drinking. As Garrett struggled to leave the bar, Ray hit her on the head from behind. She was subjected to torture and rape for three days, then drugged and left on the side of the road near her in-laws home. Garretts in-laws assumed she had been on a drug binge, and she was still too confused to recall exactly what had happened. As a result, she was asked to leave and she returned to Colorado. As time went on she remembered more about her ordeal, but she still suffered from amnesia. Cindy Hendy: A Quick Turnaround Once in custody, Cindy Hendy was quick to turn on Ray in a plea deal that included a reduced sentence. She told investigators that Ray told her about 14 murders that he had committed and where some of the bodies had been dumped. She also told of some of the different ways Ray would torture his victims which included using a mirror which was mounted in the ceiling, above the gynecologist-type  table  he used to strap his victims to so that they would have to watch was being done to them. Ray would also put his victims in wooden contraptions that bent them over and immobilized them while he had his dogs rape them and sometimes other friends.   She also gave the names of other accomplices, which included Rays daughter, Glenda Jesse Ray and Dennis Roy Yancy. According to Hendy, Jesse and Dennis had participated in the murder of Dennis ex-girlfriend, 22-year-old Marie Parker. Dennis Roy Yancy: The Fear Factor Yancy was brought in for questioning and eventually admitted to being present when Ray and his daughter Jesse kidnapped Parker and took her to the Toy Box. After three days of torture, Ray and Jesse told Yancy to kill her, which he did by strangling her with a rope. Yancy said Ray threatened to kill him if he ever told anyone about it. Glenda Jean Jesse Ray: Complete Denial Jesse Ray denied having anything to do with her father, the abductions, or with the murder of Marie Parker. Sentencing Joe Raedle / Getty Images Cindy Hendy was sentenced to 36 years as agreed to in the plea bargain. She also testified against Ray during his trials. Dennis Roy Yancy received two 15-year sentences for second-degree murder and conspiracy to commit first-degree murder. He was released after serving 11 years, but returned to custody until 2021, after violating his parole. Jesse Ray was found guilty of kidnapping women for sexual torture and was sentenced to nine years in prison, six of which could be served out of prison and on parole. It was decided that David Parker Ray would be tried separately for each victim - Cynthia Vigil, Angelica Montano, and Kelly Garrett. He later agreed to a plea deal and he was sentenced to 224 years. Death On May 28, 2002, Ray died of a heart attack while on his way to an interrogation by state police at Lea County Correctional Facility.

How to Define Poverty Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

How to Define Poverty - Literature review Example Consequently, and as Keen (1992) contends, given that development, theory embraces poverty alleviation strategies, one may assume that development policies and programmes are inherently focused upon poverty reduction/elimination. While the above assertion is valid and development policies, as does development theory, embrace poverty alleviation strategies, the fact remains that they are, more often than not, characterized by failure. The failure of development policies to successfully eradicate, or reduce poverty, is an immediate outcome of inaccurate definitions of poverty, a vague understanding of its causal factors, and a tendency to adopt prescribed development policies, as opposed to ones which have been specifically designed to address the type, cause and consequence of poverty in a specific society/nation. Through an analysis of the meaning of poverty, it variant causes and consequences, and the extent to which type and cause need inform poverty alleviation and development strategies if they are to successfully accomplish the objectives of development and poverty alleviation, the stated hypothesis will be investigated. Poverty is popularly understood as e... Until recently, the World Bank interpreted poverty in a similar manner, defining it as the "deprivation of income" (Mosley and Booth, 2003, p. 5). Realizing, however, that this definition was erroneous insofar as it imposed unjustifiable limitations on the theoretical conceptualizations of the referenced phenomenon, leading to the evolution of limited and delimiting development and poverty eradication policies, the World Bank undertook the revision of the mentioned definition. Rather than define poverty in economic terms alone, the World Bank adopted a more expansive definition of poverty as the "pronounced deprivation of well-being" (Mosley and Booth, 2003, p. 5). This definition does overcome some f the conceptual constraints imposed upon the phenomenon by the earlier definition but, as Sen (1976; 1984; 1985; 1999) has repeatedly argued, poverty is a fluid concept, most accurately defined in terms of its causal factors. Certainly, it is deprivation but it is countless forms of depr ivation, be it social, economic, political or geographic. It is not incorrect to define it as "deprivation," but it is hardly correct to leave it at that. In other words, and as Sen (1984; 1985) maintains, poverty is the absence of choice, be it on the political, economic or social levels. Â  

Strategic Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Strategic Human Resource Management - Essay Example According to the paper  performance related pay system is considered as financial incentives offered to the employees, presenting high-level of performance and efficiency in competing the assigned tasks and duties. As a result of presentation of these rewards, the level of motivation and inner skills of the employees enhances to a significant extent that increases its effectiveness. Therefore, due to the presentation of high-ended performance, the productivity and corporate image of the organization increases in the market as compared to many other rival players. Along with this, the supremacy and ranking of the organization increases in the market thereby reducing the threat of new entrants or substitute products. This is extremely essential for an organization to retain its portfolio in this competitive market for a long period of time.From this discussion it is clear that  performance related pay systems or rewards are a sort of incentives offered by the management to its empl oyees in order to retain them for longer period of time. By doing so, the level of productivity and profitability of the organization might get enhanced resulting in amplification of its dominance in the market among others. It may be of two types such as monetary and non-monetary incentives.  Monetary incentives are of varied types such as bonuses, incentives, pension schemes, profit sharing, team awards, ownership, gain-sharing, salary supplements, improvement of job stabilities etc.

Current Trends in the War on Terror Essay Example for Free

Current Trends in the War on Terror Essay As the world is cowering in terror from the 9/11 attacks and the bombing incidents in Indonesia and other parts of the world, the world’s attention is shifted now to where the attacks may occur next and what can be done to address the situation. Some suggest that the answer lies in being able to suppress and perhaps eliminate all of the terrorist cells all over the world. The problem there, however, is that any attack that is targeted at eliminating terrorist cells would necessarily involve any host country where they may be located and in any Middle Eastern country, such an attack could prove disastrous (Campbell Flourney 372). The more practical and ideal solution to this problem therefore lies at a more fundamental level; a more basic level wherein the country has more controls and no international liability (Kochler 37). The solution to this problem is by improving border security in order to prevent the occurrence of these terrorist attacks while the international community seeks for answers to address this problem at a global scale. At this point in time, domestic policies would be the best option in fighting the war against terror. This short discourse will therefore seek to shed light on the issue of terrorism and the crucial role that the border security plays in such. To gain a better understanding of the problem, it is important to first analyze the current trends that have been taken relative to border security to ensure the safety of the public from terrorist attacks. This will then be supplemented by an explanation on how border security can take an even larger role. The most crucial aspect in relation to border security and its role in the war against terror concerns the aviation industry. Since the 9/11 attacks, the public confidence with regard to air travel has greatly been shaken (Taylor 2). The attacks had the effect of sending a message that now, even airplanes could be used as missiles to target buildings regardless of whether there were people on board the aircraft of not. Every plane crash that is reported on the news is suspected to have been caused by a terrorist attack rather than just an equipment malfunction or a pilot error. In response to these attacks, security has been considerably increased in airports all over the world. Every passenger is now subject to a full body search and every hand carried and checked in item is thoroughly inspected for any suspicious objects that can either cause an explosion or aid a hijacker in gaining control over the aircraft (Campbell Flourney 52). The impact has not been limited to airport security as even airplane manufacturers and airlines have resorted to installing devices and taking precautions with regard to what to do in case an airplane is hijacked. One of the safety measures that have been suggested and is highly debated is the issuing of arms for the pilots so that they may be able to defend themselves against any terrorist hijackers that are able to force themselves into the cockpits (Lott 1). The current controversy with regard to airline security concerns the proposal to equip the pilots of airplanes with weapons in order to protect themselves from any hijackers that manage to enter the cockpit (Taylor 2). This proposal is of course faced with a lot of opposition because of the implications of allowing pilots to be armed in aircrafts. There is a lot of concern with regard to the security of the other passengers on board just in case the armed pilots do decide to turn on the other co-pilots and hijack the aircraft themselves or hold passengers as hostages for whatever purpose. The proponents for arming the pilots argue that it is the best option because the pilots need to defend themselves against the terrorist hijackers (Keeler 151). The problem with this is that it negates the training of the pilots which is that in times such as hijackings they are not supposed to deal with the terrorists but instead secure the cockpit and land the plane as soon as possible (Will 1). The concern here is that the plane should be landed right away in order to protect not only the passengers but also the people on the ground who may become targets or victims as the 9/11 experience has shown. The duty of the pilot is not concern himself with whatever goes on in the cabin but instead make sure that the plane is safely on the ground where there are more units who can deal with the situation properly. Pilots are not adequately trained to deal with hijacking situations in terms of dealing directly with the terrorist hijackers (Will 1). Another argument for the arming of the pilots is that such a measure is only designed to protect the pilots from terrorist hijackers who succeed in gaining entry into the cockpit (3). While there as some merit to this precautionary measure, there is no guarantee that the armed pilots will do just that. There are instances when certain people, pilots included, enter a â€Å"cowboys or renegade† mode (Will 1). Most of the pilots have received a degree of military training as fighter pilots and there is some truth to the profiling of fighter pilots â€Å"live wires and risk-takers† (Will 1). The end result in these situations could be that instead of protecting the cockpit and landing the plane like they are supposed to, a number of these former fighter pilots could engage the terrorist hijackers.

Confronting Death in Richard Wilburs The Pardon Essay -- Wilbur The P

Confronting Death in Richard Wilbur's The Pardon Death is the issue at the heart of Richard Wilbur's poem "The Pardon." This is apparent from the opening line, "My dog lay dead five days without a grave." What is not immediately apparent, however, is that this is not simply a poem about a young boy's sadness over the loss of his dog. What Wilbur discusses in this piece is much more profound, cutting through the superficialities of death and confronting fears and doubts that all of us experience at different points in our lives. This is a poem about atonement, about facing the mistakes of the past and confronting them directly. More specifically, it is about reconciling ourselves with death and everything that life's deepest tragedies entail. The adult narrator of the poem is haunted by his past, unable to cope with feelings and emotions that he had as a youth. He even seems to have attempted to repress a portion of his life. However, as a result of a chillingly realistic dream, he is at last forced to face what he thought was burie d for good. The realization that comes because of this, the realization that death is not something to run from, is the true meaning of the poem and the crux of what Wilbur is trying to say to the reader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "The Pardon" can be divided into three distinct parts. The first sub-section is made up of stanzas one and two, which detail a tragic event that occurred in the life of the narrator when he was ten years old: the death of his dog. It is in these first eight lines that the narrator tries to give the reader an understanding of what he felt when this happened. He uses very descriptive words and phrases, providing vivid imagery of the various sights, smells, and sounds that he experienced. H... ...ightful look into death and the fears and doubts that it induces within all of us. The narrator of the poem is a man who has never been able to confront death, beginning with the loss of his dog at the age of ten. He has chosen to avoid it his entire life, rather than attempting to understand it. It is finally as an adult that a vivid dream causes him to finally face his fears: he sees his dog rising out of its grave and begins to ask it for forgiveness. The dog in the dream can be seen as a representation of his trepidation. Once he is able to confront it and ask for its pardon, he can finally begin to cope with the idea of death.    Works Cited Jarrell, Randall. "Fifty Years of American Poetry." The Third Book of Criticism. NY: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1969. Wilbur, Richard. "Mayflies." Mayflies: New Poems and Translations. NY: Harcourt Brace, 2000.

Organizational change Essay

Organizational change is an ongoing process with important implications for organizational effectiveness. An organization and its members must be constantly on the alert for changes from within the organization and from the outside environment, and they must learn how to adjust to change quickly and effectively. Organizational change is the movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some future state to increase its effectiveness. Forces for organizational change include competitive forces; economic, political, and global forces; demographic and social forces; and ethical forces. Organizations are often reluctant to change because resistance to change at the organization, group, and individual levels has given rise to organizational inertia. Sources of organization-level resistance to change include power and conflict, differences in functional orientation, mechanistic structure, and organizational culture. Sources of group-level resistance to change include group norms, group cohesiveness, and groupthink and escalation of commitment. Sources of individual-level resistance to change include uncertainty and insecurity, selective perception and retention, and habit. According to Lewin’s force-field theory of change, organizations are balanced between forces pushing for change and forces resistant to change. To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for change, reduce resistance to change, or do both simultaneously. Types of change fall into two broad categories: evolutionary and revolutionary. The main instruments of evolutionary change are sociotechnical systems theory, total quality management, and the development of flexible workers and work teams. The main instruments of revolutionary change are reengineering, restructuring, and innovation. Often, the revolutionary types of change that result from restructuring and reengineering are necessary only because an organization and its managers ignored or were unaware of changes in the environment and did not make incremental changes as needed. Action research is a strategy that managers can use to plan the change process. The main steps in action research are (a) diagnosis and analysis of the organization, (b) determining the desired future state, (c) implementing action, (d) evaluating the action, and (e) institutionalizing action research. Organizational development (OD) is a series of techniques and methods to increase the adaptability of organizations. OD techniques can be used to overcome resistance to change and to help the organization to change itself. OD techniques for dealing with resistance to change include education and communication, participation and empowerment, facilitation, bargaining and negotiation, manipulation, and coercion. OD techniques for promoting change include, at the individual level, counseling, sensitivity training, and process consultation; at the group level, team building and intergroup training; and at the organizational level, organizational confrontation meetings. CHAPTER OUTLINE 10. 1 What Is Organizational Change? Organizational change is the process by which organizations move from their current or present state to some desired future state to increase their effectiveness. An organization in decline may need to restructure its competences and resources to improve its fit with a changing environment. Even thriving, high-performing organizations such as Google, Apple, and Facebook need to continuously change the way they operate over time to meet ongoing challenges. Targets of Change Organizational change includes changes in four areas: 1. Human resources are an organization’s most important asset. Because these skills and abilities give an organization a competitive advantage, organizations must continually monitor their structures to find the most effective way of motivating and organizing human resources to acquire and use their skills. Changes made in human resources include investment in training, socializing employees, changing norms to motivate a diverse workforce, monitoring promotion and reward systems, and changing top management. 2. Each organizational function needs to develop procedures that allow it to manage the particular environment it faces. Crucial functions grow in importance while those whose usefulness is declining shrink. Thus, key functions grow in importance. Organizations can change structure, culture, and technology to improve the value created by functions. 3 Organizational change often involves changing the relationships between people and functions to increase their ability to create value. 10. 2 Forces for and Resistance to Organizational Change Forces for Change If managers are slow to respond to the forces of change, the organization will lag behind its competitors and its effectiveness will be compromised. (Refer to Figure 10. 1) Competitive forces spur change, because unless an organization matches or surpasses its competitors it will not survive. Managing change is crucial when competing for customers. To lead on the dimensions of efficiency or quality, an organization must constantly adopt the latest technology as it becomes available. To lead on the dimension of innovation and obtain a technological advantage over competitors, a company must possess skills in managing the process of innovation. Economic, political, and global forces, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or other economic unions, are significant forces of change. The European Union (EU) includes over 27 members eager to take advantage of a large protected market. Global challenges facing organizations include the need to change an organizational structure to allow expansion into foreign markets, the need to adapt to a variety of national cultures, and the need to help expatriate managers adapt to the economic, political, and cultural values of the countries in which they are located. Demographic and social forces include an increasingly diverse workforce. Changes in the demographic characteristics of the workforce require managers to change their styles of managing all employees and to learn how to understand, supervise, and motivate diverse members effectively. Many workers want to balance work and leisure. Managers need to abandon stereotypes and accept the importance of equity in the recruitment and promotion of new hires. Ethical forces such as increasing government, political, and social demands for more responsible and honest corporate behavior are compelling organizations to promote ethical behavior. Many companies have created the position of ethics officer. If organizations operate in countries that pay little attention to human rights or to the well-being of organizational members, they have to learn how to change these standards and to protect their overseas employees. Resistances to Change Resistance to change lowers an organization’s effectiveness and reduces its chances of survival. Resistances or impediments to change that cause inertia are found at the organization, group, and individual levels. (Refer to Figure 10. 1) Organization-Level Resistance to Change Power and conflict: When change causes power struggles and organizational conflict, an organization is likely to resist it. If change benefits one function at the expense of another, conflict impedes the change process. In the old IBM, for example, managers of its mainframe computer division fought off attempts to redirect IBM’s resources to produce the PCs that customers wanted in order to preserve their own power. Differences in functional orientation: This means that different functions and divisions often see the source of a problem differently because they see an issue or problem primarily from their own viewpoint. This tunnel vision increases organizational inertia. Mechanistic structure: Mechanistic structures are more resistant to change. People who work within a mechanistic structure are expected to act in certain ways and do not develop the capacity to adjust their behavior to changing conditions. A mechanistic structure typically develops as an organization grows and is a principal source of inertia, especially in large organizations. The extensive use of mutual adjustment and decentralized authority in an organic structure makes it less resistant to change. Organizational culture: Organizational culture, values, and norms cause resistance to change. If organizational change disrupts taken-for-granted values and norms and forces people to change what they do and how they do it, an organization’s culture will cause resistance to change. Group-Level Resistance to Change Many groups develop strong informal norms that specify appropriate and inappropriate behaviors and govern the interactions between group members. Often, change alters task and role relationships in a group; when it does, it disrupts group norms and the informal expectations that group members have of one another. As a result, members of a group may resist change because a new set of norms must be developed to meet the needs of the new situation. Group cohesiveness, the attractiveness of a group to its members, also affects group performance. A highly cohesive group may resist attempts by management to change what it does or even who is a member of the group. Groupthink and escalation of commitment also make changing a group’s behavior very difficult. Individual-Level Resistance to Change People tend to resist change because they feel uncertain and insecure about what its outcome will be. Selective perception and retention suggest that people perceive information consistent with their views. If change doesn’t benefit them, they do not endorse it. People’s preference for familiar actions and events is a further impediment to change. Lewin’s Force-Field Theory of Change Force-field theory is a theory of organizational change that argues that two sets of opposing forces within an organization determine how change will take place. When the forces are evenly balanced, the organization is in a state of inertia and does not change. To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for change, reduce resistance to change, or do both simultaneously. Any of these strategies will overcome inertia and cause an organization to change. (Refer to Figure 10. 2) Managerial Implications Managers must continuously monitor the environment to identify the forces for change. They must analyze how the change will affect the organization and determine which type of change to pursue. 10. 3 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Change in Organizations Evolutionary change refers to change that is gradual, incremental, and specifically focused. It adds small adjustments to strategy and structure to handle environmental changes. Sociotechnical systems theory, total quality management, and the creation of empowered, flexible work groups are three instruments of evolutionary change that organizations use in their attempt to make incremental improvements in the way work gets done. Revolutionary change refers to change that is sudden, drastic, and organization-wide. It has repercussions at all levels in the organization—corporate, divisional, functional, group, and individual. Three ways to implement revolutionary change are reengineering, restructuring, and innovation. Developments in Evolutionary Change: Sociotechnical Systems Theory Sociotechnical systems theory is a theory that proposes the importance of changing role and task or technical relationships to increase organizational effectiveness. It emerged from a study of changing work practices in the British coal-mining industry. The socio-technical systems theory argues that managers need to fit or jointly optimize the workings of the technical and social systems. A poor fit between an organization’s technology and social system leads to failure, but a close fit leads to success. When managers change task and role relationships, they must recognize the need to adjust the technical and social systems gradually so group norms and cohesiveness are not disrupted. By taking this gradual approach, an organization can avoid the group-level resistance to change. Researchers suggest that a team-oriented system promotes values that enhance efficiency and product quality. Total quality management uses sociotechnical systems theory. Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) is a technique developed by W. Edwards Deming to continuously improve the effectiveness of flexible work teams. It was embraced by Japanese companies after World War II. Changes frequently inspired by TQM include altering the design or type of machines used to assemble products and reorganizing the sequence of activities—either within or between functions—necessary to provide a service to a customer. Changing cross-functional relationships to help improve quality is important in TQM. The changes associated with TQM are changes in task, role, and group relationships. Implementing a TQM program is not always easy because it requires workers and managers to adopt new ways of viewing their roles in an organization. Managers must be willing to decentralize control of decision making, empower workers, and assume the role of facilitator rather than supervisor. The â€Å"command and control† model gives way to an â€Å"advise and support† model. Flexible Workers and Flexible Work Teams In implementing socio-technical systems theory and TQM, many organizations are finding it easier to achieve their goals by using flexible workers and teams. Flexible workers can be transferred between departments and functions as demand changes. The advantages of flexible workers include quick response to environmental changes; reduced boredom and increased incentives for quality; better understanding by learning one another’s tasks; and combining tasks to increase efficiency and reduce costs. A flexible work team is a group of workers who assume responsibility for performing all the operations necessary for completing a specified stage in the manufacturing process. A flexible work team is self-managed; members jointly assign tasks and transfer from one task to another. In a flexible work team, separate teams assemble different components and turn those components over to the final-product work team, which assembles the final product. Each team’s activities are driven by demands that have their origins in customer demands for the final product. (Refer to Figure 10. 3) Developments in Revolutionary Change: Reengineering The term â€Å"reengineering† has been used to refer to the process by which managers redesign how tasks are bundled into roles and functions to improve organizational effectiveness. It involves rethinking business processes, activities that cross functional boundaries. Instead of focusing on an organization’s functions in isolation from one another, managers make business processes the focus of attention. A business process is an activity that cuts across functional boundaries and is vital to the quick delivery of goods and services or that promotes high quality or low costs. Because reengineering focuses on business processes and not functions, an organization must rethink the way it approaches organizing its activities. A good example of how to use reengineering to increase functional integration comes from attempts to redesign the materials management function to improve its effectiveness. In the traditional functional design the three main components of materials management—purchasing, production control, and distribution—were typically in separate functions and had little to do with one another. Thus coordinating their activities is difficult. Each function has its own hierarchy, and there are problems in both vertical and horizontal communication. Today, most organizations put all three of the functional activities involved in the materials management process inside one function. Three guidelines for performing reengineering successfully are as follows: Organize around outcomes, not tasks. 2. Have those who use the output of the process perform the process. 3. Decentralize decision making to the point where the decision is made. Reengineering and TQM are highly interrelated and complementary. E-Engineering This is a term used to refer to companies’ attempts to use all kinds of information systems to improve performance. The importance of e-engineering is increasing as it changes the way a company organizes its value-creation functions and links them to improve its performance. Restructuring Restructuring is a process by which managers change task and authority relationships and redesign organizational structure and culture to improve organizational effectiveness. Downsizing is the process by which managers streamline the organizational hierarchy and lay off managers and workers to reduce bureaucratic costs. The drive to decrease bureaucratic costs results from competitive pressures. Mergers and acquisitions in many industries, such as banking, have led to downsizing because fewer managers are needed. Other companies have reduced staff to match competitors. The negative effects of downsizing include overworked managers and lost opportunities. Companies that fail to control growth must downsize to remain competitive. The terms anorexic or hollow are used to refer to organizations that downsized too much and have too few managers to help them grow when conditions change. Restructuring, like other change strategies, generates resistance to change. Often, the decision to downsize requires the establishment of new task and role relationships. Because this change may threaten the jobs of some workers, they resist the changes taking place. Innovation Innovation refers to the process by which organizations use their skills and resources to develop new goods and services or to develop new production and operating systems so they can better respond to the needs of their customers. 10. 4 Managing Change: Action Research In Lewin’s view, implementing change is a three-step process: (1) unfreezing the organization from its present state, (2) making the change, and (3) refreezing the organization in the new, desired state so its members do not revert to their previous work attitudes and role behavior. Action research is a strategy for generating and acquiring knowledge that managers can use to define an organization’s desired future state and to plan a change program that allows the organization to reach that state. Figure 10. 6 highlights the steps in action research. Diagnosis of the Organization The first step in action research requires managers to recognize the existence of a problem that needs to be solved and acknowledge that some type of change is needed to solve it. In general, recognition of the need for change arises because somebody in the organization perceives a gap between desired performance and actual performance. Determining the Desired Future State This step also involves a difficult planning process as managers work out various alternative courses of action that could move the organization to where they would like it to be and determine what type of change to implement. Implementing Action 1. First, managers identify possible impediments to change at all levels. The second step is deciding who will be responsible for actually making the changes and controlling the change process. The choices are to employ either external change agents or internal change agents or use some combination of both. 3. The third step is deciding which specific change strategy will most effectively unfreeze, change, and refreeze the organization. The types of change that these techniques give rise to fall into two categories: Top-down change is implemented by managers at a high level in the organization, knowing that the change will reverberate at all organizational levels. Bottom-up change is implemented by employees at low levels in the organization that gradually rises until it is felt throughout the organization. Evaluating the Action The fourth step in action research is evaluating the action that has been taken and assessing the degree to which the changes have accomplished the desired objectives. The best way to evaluate the change process is to develop measures or criteria that allow managers to assess whether the organization has reached its desired objectives. Institutionalizing Action Research Organizations need to institutionalize action research—that is, make it a required habit or a norm adopted by every member of an organization. The institutionalization of action research is as necessary at the top of the organization as it is on the shop floor. Managerial Implications Managers must develop criteria to evaluate whether a change is necessary, and carefully design a plan that minimizes resistance. 10. 5 Organizational Development Organizational development (OD) is a series of techniques and methods that managers can use in their action research program to increase the adaptability of their organization. The goal of OD is to improve organizational effectiveness and to help people in organizations reach their potential and realize their goals and objectives. OD Techniques to Deal with Resistance to Change Education and Communication: One impediment to change is that participants are uncertain about what is going to happen. Through education and communication, internal and external agents of change can provide organizational members with information about the change and how it will affect them. Participation and Empowerment: Inviting workers to participate in the change process is a popular method of reducing resistance to change. Participation complements empowerment, increases workers’ involvement in decision making, and gives them greater autonomy to change work procedures to improve organizational performance. These are key elements of most TQM programs. People that are involved in the change and decision-making process are more likely to embrace rather than resist. Facilitation: Both managers and workers find change stressful. There are several ways in which organizations can help their members to manage stress: providing them with training to help them learn how to perform new tasks, providing them with time off from work to recuperate from the stressful effects of change, or even giving senior members sabbaticals. Bargaining and Negotiation: Bargaining and negotiation are important tools that help managers manage conflict. Because change causes conflict, bargaining is an important tool in overcoming resistance to change. Manipulation: Sometimes senior managers need to intervene, as politics shows that powerful managers have considerable ability to resist change. Coercion: The ultimate way to eliminate resistance to change is to coerce the key players into accepting change and threaten dire consequences if they choose to resist. The disadvantage is that it can leave people angry and disenchanted and can make the refreezing process difficult. OD Techniques to Promote Change Counseling, Sensitivity Training, and Process Consultation: Recognizing that each individual is different also requires them to be treated or managed differently. Sometimes, counseling will help individuals understand that their own perceptions of a situation may be incorrect. Sensitivity training is an OD technique that consists of intense counseling in which group members, aided by a facilitator, learn how others perceive them and may learn how to deal more sensitively with others. Process consultation is an OD technique in which a facilitator works closely with a manager on the job to help the manager improve his or her interactions with other group members. Team building is an OD technique in which a facilitator first observes the interactions of group members and then helps them become aware of ways to improve their work interactions. The goal of team building is to improve group processes to achieve process gains and reduce process losses that are occurring because of shirking and freeriding. Intergroup training is an OD technique that uses team building to improve the work interactions of different functions or divisions. Its goal is to improve organizational performance by focusing on a function’s or division’s joint activities and output. Organizational mirroring is an OD technique in which a facilitator helps two interdependent groups explore their perceptions and relations in order to improve their work interactions. This technique is designed to get both interdependent groups to see the perspective of the other side. Appreciating others’ perspectives allows the groups to work together more effectively. Total Organizational Interventions: A variety of OD techniques can be used at the organization level to promote organization-wide change. Organizational confrontation meeting is an OD technique that brings together all of the managers of an organization at a meeting to confront the issue of whether the organization is meeting its goals effectively.