Who Killed Martin Luther King Essay -- Civil Rights

Scratching the Surface, Not Driving in Bullets or Why White great deal are Such MoronsA great number of citizenry know who Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was. My generation has had the opportunity to learn about his work in the genteel rights movement and his I have a Dream speech as early as elementary school. Id venture to register that a fewer amount of throng know that this icon was assassinated and pile Earl Ray, a white man, was arrested as his killer. Unfortunately, an even smaller number of people have heard of, or have read about a remarkable civil rights writer named James Baldwin. Determining whom killed Martin Luther King seems to still be an issue because of the guilt of the white man. If white men were properly educated, there would be no reason for the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. If white people would analyze their past, like Baldwin suggests, in a truthful manner, the guilt should dissipate.Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil rights leader during the middle part of the twentieth century. He gave many speeches and led peace marches to gain equal rights for African Americans. I chose to research the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. I guess I knew that he was assassinated but I didnt know the details. I wanted to know who killed him, when, where, and how King died. The Purpose of this paper is not to determine if James Earl Ray did in fact kill Martin Luther King. Rather, it is a dissection of characters and events utilizing the ideas of the illustrious James Baldwin. In the early part of 1968 he was interested in producing another civil rights march for the poor. Before that could happen, the sanitation workers of the city of Memphis, Tennessee, summoned him. He arrived in March in ord... ...ca, 1998. 63-84. ---. Down at the Cross. 1955. James Baldwin Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York Library of America, 1998. 63-84. Harrison, Eric. The putting to death of Dr. King Revisited. NewsBank NewsFile Colle ction 4 (1994) A-15 McKinley, James. Assassination in America. New York Harper & Row, Publishers, 1975. Pepper, William F. Orders to Kill The Truth Behind the Murder of Martin Luther King. New York Caroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., 1995. Ray, James Earl. Who Killed Martin Luther King? The real Story By the Alleged Assassin. Washington, D.C. National Press Books, 1992. Seigenthaler, John. A Search For Justice. Nashville, TN Aurora Publishers, inc., 1971. Wexler, Sanford. An Eyewitness History of The Civil Rights Movement. New York Checkmark Books an imprint of Facts on File, Inc., 1993.

Grapes of Wrath Essay: Steinbecks Powerful Style -- Grapes Wrath essa

The Powerful Style of The Grapes of Wrath When Steinbeck wrote The Grapes of Wrath, our country was just showtime to recover from The keen Depression. The novel he wrote, though fiction, was not an uncommon tale in many lives. When this book was first published, the majority of those reading it mum where it was coming from-they had lived it. besides now very few people conceive the horrors of what went on in that time. The style in which Steinbeck chose to write The Grapes of Wrath helps get crossways the books message. Early in the 1930s Steinbeck wrote, The trees and the muscled mountains are the world-but not the world apart from man-the world and man-the one inseparable unit man and his environment. Why they should ever have been understand as being separate I do not know. Steinbeck strove to reconnect them, and it shows in his writing. Intermixed with the plot are corollary chapters. The purpose of the corollary chapters is to put the events of the story in perspecti ve to the fate of the country, so everyone would be able to understand the context of the book. The corollary chapters tell little pieces of the common story, the story held in common. They dont give specifics-they give generalities. The first chapter gives the compass to whole of the following(a) events. Every-other chapter gives more background to the story. Whether a massive draught causes this migration of people from the Midwest, or all the families get told to get off of the land, or all the migrants are starved the chapters tell how all of this happened. Not only does Steinbeck tell his story and put it in perspective, he also gives complaisant commentary. One faculty expect this social commentary to be... ...h at the idea of carrying a new life, as well as saving an older life-when aspects of her maternity give life. The heterogeneous writing techniques that Steinbeck apply in the Grapes of Wrath brought out the message he wanted to get across. The corollary chap ters put the story in perspective, helping the reader understand the context of the events. The 2 types of social commentary gave each of them added weight. And finally, the use of repetition gave the whole book a sense of continuity. Works Cited and Consulted Noble, Donald R. ed. The Steinbeck Question New Essays in Criticism. Troy, New York, 1993. Pipher, Mary. restorative Ophelia. New York Ballantine Books, 1994. Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. New York Penguin Books, 1930. Wyatt, David ed. New Essays on The Grapes of Wrath. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1990. Grapes of Wrath Essay Steinbecks Powerful Style -- Grapes Wrath essaThe Powerful Style of The Grapes of Wrath When Steinbeck wrote The Grapes of Wrath, our country was just starting to recover from The Great Depression. The novel he wrote, though fiction, was not an uncommon tale in many lives. When this book was first published, the majority of those reading it understood where it was c oming from-they had lived it. But now very few people understand the horrors of what went on in that time. The style in which Steinbeck chose to write The Grapes of Wrath helps get across the books message. Early in the 1930s Steinbeck wrote, The trees and the muscled mountains are the world-but not the world apart from man-the world and man-the one inseparable unit man and his environment. Why they should ever have been understood as being separate I do not know. Steinbeck strove to reconnect them, and it shows in his writing. Intermixed with the plot are corollary chapters. The purpose of the corollary chapters is to put the events of the story in perspective to the circumstances of the country, so everyone would be able to understand the context of the book. The corollary chapters tell little pieces of the common story, the story held in common. They dont give specifics-they give generalities. The first chapter gives the background to all of the following events. Every-other ch apter gives more background to the story. Whether a massive draught causes this migration of people from the Midwest, or all the families get told to get off of the land, or all the migrants are starving the chapters tell how all of this happened. Not only does Steinbeck tell his story and put it in perspective, he also gives social commentary. One might expect this social commentary to be... ...h at the idea of carrying a new life, as well as saving an older life-when aspects of her maternity give life. The various writing techniques that Steinbeck used in the Grapes of Wrath brought out the message he wanted to get across. The corollary chapters put the story in perspective, helping the reader understand the context of the events. The two types of social commentary gave each of them added weight. And finally, the use of repetition gave the whole book a sense of continuity. Works Cited and Consulted Noble, Donald R. ed. The Steinbeck Question New Essays in Criticism. Troy, New York, 1993. Pipher, Mary. Reviving Ophelia. New York Ballantine Books, 1994. Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. New York Penguin Books, 1930. Wyatt, David ed. New Essays on The Grapes of Wrath. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Symbolism and Irony in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay -- Young

Symbolism and Irony in Young Goodman Brown Nathaniel Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown is the story of a unexampled man faced with the ingenuousness that evil is a part of human nature. The story illustrates how naivet can drive a person to lunacy. Young Goodman Brown, who symbolizes that Puritan every man, is shocked when he sees regard clergymen and women of his village at the devils communion. His disbelief that it is normal and acceptable to be intrinsically evil causes him to live a life of despair. In the story, symbolic representation and irony atomic number 18 cleverly implemented to show that no one is completely good or evil, and that the tension between these opposites is where power to progress onward is generated. There are more elements to the story than just the battle of good vs. evil. Sexuality also becomes an issue in the story. At the beginning of the story, Young Goodman Brown bids farewell to his young wife. The particular aspect of his life that she represents is illustrated by her name Faith. Faith ...thrusts her pretty head into the street, letting the wind play with the pink ribbons of her cap... (Hawthorne 272). Already the dynamic symbolism between nature and the home is set up. Nature, particularly the wind, forest, and darkness symbolizes sinfulness and evil. The home, specifically Faith and her pink ribbons, symbolizes the perceived safety and security of the Puritan corporation as asylum from the sin of the rest of the world. Goodman Brown begins his journey into the woods. He reprimands himself for leaving Faith on such an errand, but promises to cling to her skirts and follow her to paradise (Hawthorne 272) when he returns. This errand is never clarified, but it... ...986. 5 2737-40. Fogle, Richard, H. Hawthorns Fiction The Light and the Dark. Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press, 1964. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Young Goodman Brown An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Ed. Alison Reeves. New Jersey Prentice Hall, 1995. Shear, Walter. cultural fate and social freedom in three American short stories. Studies in Short Fiction, fall 92, Vol. 29 Issue 4, p543, 7p. Swisher, Clarice., ed. Color and Images in The cerise Letter. Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne. Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1996. VonFrank, Albert J. Pretty in Pink Young Goodman Brown and New-World. Critical Essay on Hawthorns Short Stories, Boston G.K. Hall & Co., 1991. Zanger, Jules. Young Goodman Brown and A White HeronCorrespondences And illuminations. Papers on Language & Literature. Summer90, Vol. 26 Issue 3, p346, 12p.

My Antonia :: essays research papers

My Antoniaby Willa CatherAuthor Willa Sibert Cather, Nebraskas most noted author was born in Virginia. At the age of ten she moved with her family to Webster County, Nebraska. Many of Cathers acquaintances and Red Cloud area scenes can be recognized in her writings.Cather wrote poetry, short stories, essays and novels, winning many awards. In 1920 she won the Pulitzer Prize for her novel One of Ours, about a Nebraska farm boy who went off to World War I.Willa Cathers reputation as wiz of Americas finest novelists rests on her novels about Nebraska and the American Southwest. These novels express her deep love of the land and her distaste for the materialism and conformism of modern life.Devoted to values much(prenominal) as the importance of family and the need for human courage and dignity, she created strong female characters whose sort of strength and determination had previously been attributed to only men.My Antonia, one of Cathers best works, is an unconventional, amatory n ovel of prairie life. It tells the story of a remarkable woman whose strength and passion epitomize the pioneer spirit.CharactersJim Burden - The man narrating the story.Antonia Shimerda -The daughter of Bohemian immigrants and the heroine of the story.Ambrosch Shimerda - Antonias mean fellowMarek Shimerda -Antonias mentally disabled brother.Yulka Shimerda - Antonias younger sister.Mr. and Mrs. Shimerda - Antonias gently father who committed suicide, and her bitter, complaining mother.Larry Donovan - The man Antonia thought was going to marry her.Lena Lingard - A girl that Jim grew up with and was successful.Anton Cuzak - Antonias husband.The track recordThe book begins with an introduction. In the introduction it tells about James Quale Burden (Jim Burden) and how the story came to be write. The introduction is written by a woman who is an old promoter to Jim and who grew up in the same Nebraska town as he did. They are both now living in New York where Jim is a successful law yer.She tells about Jims wife, Genevieve, who she does not like, and doesnt think she is well suited for Jim. They start talking about Antonia, who they both knew and admired, and wondering why something wasnt written about her. Months later, Jim brings her what he had written and She writes the narrative as Jim had written it.The story begins with ten year old Jim Burden traveling from Virginia to Nebraska to live with his grandparents after losing his parents.

Anti-Trust Legislation & Microsoft: Do The Ends Justify The Means? Essa

Anti-Trust Legislation & Microsoft Do The Ends Justify The Means?Anyone who uses a computer today has likely heard of Microsoft, the maker of Microsoft Windows. Over the past a few(prenominal) years, as Microsofts software has dominated the market, Microsoft has been involved in a number of anti-trust lawsuits, claiming that Microsoft has engaged in unfair business practices which are monopolistic and anti-competitive. By the end of these proceedings, Microsoft was found to be in violation of federal anti-trust laws. The real question now becomes whether or not these anti-trust laws constitute served their purposes. They exist in unconnected countries very much the same as they do here. After reviewing legal analyses here in the United States, I will conclude that Microsoft may therefore be in violation of anti-trust legislation, but the application of these laws, which Microsoft has allegedly violated, does not follow the intention of these laws back when they were initially writ ten. Anti-trust laws, while pure in motive, have the fundamental flaw of preventing the formation of intelligent mergers and monopolies, when what they should be doing is preventing these monopolies from taking advantage of consumers. In the United States, anti-trust legislation began with the Sherman strike, passed by Congress in 1890. The Sherman Act prohibited contracts and conspiracies in restraint of trade as well as monopolization of or attempts to monopolize trade. The Sherman Act was followed by the Clayton Act and the FTC Act, the latter of which established the national Trade Commission as a body who was authorized to prevent corporations from engaging in unfair business practices. By 1950, Congress had enacted two to a greater extent laws, the Robinson-Patman Act, which mod... ...le to develop the software that will give people what they want. As a result, the software that we want will be produced by some small business, who really dont have the experience necessar y with the operating system, or even if they do, their product will be over priced and will draw microscopic demand anyway.BibliographyDebra A. Valentine, The Goals Of Competition Law, prepared remarks, Pacific Economic Cooperation Council Conference on Trade and Competition Policy, May 13-14 1997, 8. Office of Fair Trading, Competition Act 1998 - what is the law?, Office of Fair Trading, 6/8/2004, Joe Wilcox, Judge Rules Microsoft Violated Antitrust Laws, CNET News.com, April 3, 2000, 4. Yet Another Anti-trust Suit Against Microsoft, Reuters 22 Oct 1998,

Art Is Important To Religion :: essays research papers

Why is Art Important to ReligionArt is important to religion in many different instructions. Perhaps none has analyse how trick and religion have influenced and affected each other through the ages. Pictures painted of quondam(prenominal) events that sponsor to bring back the feeling and importance of the past have been forgotten by some. To the ones that havent forgotten are able to see the events as the watchword says they happened. Not only can you see the events, but it also allows the younger students of the church to understand the events. The use of images of God became widespread after the second century. This apparitional ruse has defiantly been around for centuries and plays an important role to the history of religion as well as the future.Religious art helps people that are looking for security and hope. Today society is looking for peace and an anchor to hold onto. This religious art lifts the spirit and brings peace within through a beauteous way. It helps re assure people that there is a life after this one. One needs non fear the power of God but to understand his actions and the way one should live his or her life.Art through the ages has been a powerful voice for both secular and religious ideas, and the treasury of Christian art should not be relegated to museum viewing. The art should be displayed in the church were it is meant to be. Its richness can be brought to people in schools and adult study groups. This, in turn, can help to bring art up to the level, that the faith deserves. Churches should fill the walls with art to show what happened through away the bible. Art creates connections and associations between what we see and what we sense happened. Both ritual and art challenge us to take us beyond the immediate, if they are to bring about true insight and transformation in our lives.When the religious art leaks out of the religious community and into the broader world of culture, it is one of the ways the meaning of the ar t can evolve. This is also an opportunity for the art to draw the world to religion. Moreover, artistic reinterpretation of tabu imagery can help keep religion honest. The church has always been enriched by the tension that comes with diversity in art. Art is communication and effective art communicates effectively to any group at any level.

How male/female relationships are portrayed in Macbeth and poems

Male/fe virile alliances are portrayed differently in the poems Porphyrias Lover, Havisham, Cousin Kate and the play Macbeth. They all contact the themes of get along, hate, desirousy, betrayal, guilt and obsession. However, the love versus hate theme is most dominant because all of the poems and the play have a melancholy bodily fluid, showing how the key records have been attenuate by love through their kinds and how afterwards, the way they feel has also been affected.Shakespeares characters Macbeth and dame Macbeth are initially united by their mutual ambition for forefinger and their family family is brawny. However, over time, they become haunted by the brutal deeds that they have carried out to achieve their aims. They are dictated apart by their informal feelings, secrets and guilt. In Act 1 crack 7 of Macbeth, Lady Macbeth is portrayed as a woman in interpret over her man, a rattling odd situation in Jacobean times where the man would most often be in contr ol of the woman.She is shown as being in control by persuading Macbeth into executioning Dun tail, the king. She says, Which thou esteemst the ornament of life, And live a coward in thine own esteem, to Macbeth, telling him he could have all his desires and the crown, but he is a coward and wont achieve it. This makes the audience see her as a much less sensitive and respectful woman, compared to the typical Jacobean lady, being cut back and controlled by male dominance in society. At the time the play was written, women had no power or control over anything, and all decisions were made by men.However, Lady Macbeth is the opposite of this, and challenges Macbeth to murder Duncan. While Lady Macbeth is shown as having more power at this point in the play, they arent hiding their thoughts or secrets from from each one other. The audience are shown this by the couple plotting the murder together as a united team and by them discussing what can non you and I perform upon the unguarde d Duncan. The pitch of this on the audience is real powerful, as it shows how they would plan such a horrible deed together as a team, and dont veil any of their secrets from each other.Although planning the murder is horrific, they are shown as having a very close relationship at this point in the play, due to the detail that they dont keep secrets from each other and are willing to plan a murder together. Lady Macbeth in Act 1 Scene 7 is shown to the audience as being quite demanding and persuading towards Macbeth about murdering Duncan. She uses different techniques to try and persuade Macbeth to murder the king, for pillow slip, exploitation flattery when she says When you durst do it, then you were a man And, to be more than what you were, you would Be so much more the man.The techniques she used eventually managed to convince her husband to kill Duncan. The effect of Lady Macbeth using these techniques on the audience makes them portray her as quite desperate for Macbeth to kill Duncan and that she acknowledges as a woman she cant do the deed herself, she does non have enough power to do so. The relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth is shown to the audience as being quite tense at this point, due to Macbeth not wanting to neither murder the king nor disappoint his wife.Another technique she uses as well as flattery is guilt, to make Macbeth feel bad for breaking his telephone to her and for not murdering Duncan, allowing Lady Macbeth to become the Queen of Scotland. Lady Macbeth is shown as not acting how a typical Jacobean lady would, calm, innocent and clean, but sort of as manly, aggressive and dark-minded. When she is persuading Macbeth to murder Duncan, she says to him, I would, while it was smiling in my face, Have pluckd my nipple from his boneless gums, And dashd the brains out, had I so sworn as you have done this.This quote has a very powerful effect on the audience and shows to them how heartless, ruthless and insensitive she is. The emblem of a mother and her baby represents the closest bond of love, tho Lady Macbeth would have been willing to destroy it if she had made a promise to Macbeth. This reveals to the audience that Lady Macbeth is determined to see Duncan murdered. She says she will do anything for Macbeth, and challenges him to do the same for her by murdering Duncan, against his will.In Act 3 Scene 2, after Macbeth has been crowned King of Scotland following the murder of Duncan, Lady Macbeth is no longer portrayed as powerful and dominant. Instead, Macbeth is now in control in their relationship. Lady Macbeth says to one of her servants, Say to the king, I would realize his leisure for a few words, sort of of approaching him directly, suggesting that they are becoming more distant from each other. This shows the audience that Lady Macbeth recognises Macbeths power as king and is conscious that she should be more reverent towards him.In this scene, Lady Macbeth behaves less aggressively and more sensitively towards Macbeths feelings, like a traditional Jacobean wife would towards her husband. She says, Gentle my lord, sleek oer your rugged looks be bright and jovial among your guests to-night. From this quote the audience can see that she is trying to calm and tranquilize Macbeth, suggesting that she feels guilty about convincing him to kill Duncan. She is shown as being quite caring, the opposite of her earlier personality.This makes the audience believe that although she was has been a very strong character, she is adequate to(p) to adjust the way she behaves according to the situation she is in, in this case Macbeth starting to become paranoid and delirious. On the contrary, their relationship at this point is being driven apart they are keeping their feelings and secrets away from each other. Macbeth, while planning to kill Banquo and Fleance, says to Lady Macbeth, Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck, Till thou spat the deed.This quote shows the aud ience that Macbeth doesnt want Lady Macbeth to know about his plan for killing Banquo and Fleance until he has done it. It shows that Macbeth is isolating himself from every frame else including Lady Macbeth, driving their relationship further and further away. Macbeth, in this scene, becomes overwhelmed by paranoia and the guilt of murdering Duncan. We have scorchd the snake, not killd it Shell close and be herself, whilst our poor malevolence Remains in danger of her former tooth. In conclusion, Macbeth is both a victim of persuasion from his wife and fate, as prophesised by the witches.Lady Macbeth is a very strong influence of his actions in the first part of the play. In the later scene, however, he is in control of her instead and even approaching their deaths, the relationship between them carcass intact. The poems Porphyrias Lover, Havisham and Cousin Kate are all based around three key themes love, betrayal and jealousy. These poems all have a gloomy mood about them and unlike Macbeth the central relationship in each of the poems are destroyed by the end of the poem. The relationships in the poems are broken apart by the actions of the male character.Robert Brownings Porphyrias Lover is very interesting as the mood of the poem changes quite quickly. At the start of the poem, Porphyria is quite dictatorial of her lover. The reader is shown this by her lover saying, She shut out the cold and storm And kneeled and made the cheerless grate Blaze up and all the cottage fiery. This quote shows that as soon as Porphyria has entered, she is adjusting the conditions to suit her, in this case making the cottage warmer. This suggests to the reader that Porphyria likes to be in control, and that she is most dominant in the relationship between her and her lover.The quote She sat down by my side And called me. When no voice replied, She put my arm about her waist shows how when her lover ignores her, she controls his body so that he notices her more. This mak es the reader portray her as having quite a forceful and vigorous character and that Porphyrias lover allows her to control him, suggesting to the reader that he is a weak character. Later on in the poem, Porphyrias lover is portrayed as being quite obsessive of her. He thinks Porphyria adores him and remarks That moment she was mine, mine, comme il faut.He is deluded about their relationship and believes Porphyria worshipped me. The reader is shown how her lover wants to possess Porphyria as if she is an object of desire, making them question whether he truly loves her. This makes the reader portray the relationship between them as quite tense, since he is very possessive of Porphyria and makes the reader believe he doesnt truly love her. Porphyria and her lovers relationship changes at this point, and instead of loving each other as the audience believes at the start of the poem, Porphyria decides she does not want to be with her lover any longer.Porphyria feels that her pride an d course of study is more master(prenominal) than her love and is believed by her lover to be Too weak for all her hearts endeavour, To set it struggling passion free. The reader views Porphyria as being quite conscious of her dignity and status in society, and is shown that she believes she is too good for him. This makes the reader question whether she truly loves him or if she doesnt at all. The relationship at this point in the poem is shown to the reader as being quite tense, due to the fact that Porphyria doesnt want to be with her lover anymore and wanting to leave him.Porphyrias lover believes that Porphyria wanted to be with him and convinced himself that by killing her he has fulfilled her wish to be with him. Porphyrias love she guessed now how, Her darling one wish would be heard. This quote shows to the reader that her lover wishes for her happiness, suggesting that her does truly love her. Their relationship at this point ends, yet they have both achieved their dream s Porphyria has been able to leave him through death, yet he is happy to have her body as an object of his desire. Havisham by Carol Ann Duffy contrasts to Porphyrias Lover in many ways.Firstly, the key character has already been mischief by her lover before the poem has started, unlike Porphyrias Lover where she is hurt at the end. The reader is shown that Havisham has been hurt by her saying not a day since then I havent wished him dead. This quote has a very powerful effect on the reader, as it shows them Havishams feelings towards love after she has been hurt by it, and the affect it has had on her, making them empathise with her. The relationship in this poem compared to Porphyrias Lover is very different yet mysterious, due to the fact that the reader is left hand to guess what has happened previously before the poem.Another effort for why Havisham differs from Porphyrias Lover is that the poet has written the poem from the womens perspective, instead of the mans like in Po rphyrias Lover. The key character from Havisham is portrayed to the reader as being left heartbroken by her lover and psychologically scarred. She spent Whole days in bed cawing Nooooo at the wall, which shows the reader that she is depressed and has chosen to isolated herself from the rest of society.This suggests that she now feels alone and possibly worthless, the opposite of Porphyrias Lover where Porphyria believes her pride and high class in society is more important than her love. This has an interesting effect on the reader because it shows them the vast effect love can have on people, and how it can change them altogether, just like how Havisham has changed. Furthermore, Havisham says beloved sweetheart bastard, showing the reader that she used to adore her lover, but now hates him and thinks poorly of him. This quote is very efficacious and Duffy has used oxymoron to express how Havisham feels about her lover to the reader.This is a similar technique to the pathetic falla cy used by Browning in Porphyrias Lover when it says The rain set early in tonight, The sullen wind was soon awake, referring to Porphyria coming to visit her lover. These techniques that the poets use are very effective and hint different messages to the reader about the poems, in the case of Havisham, showing how she used to love him but now despises him. Christina Rossettis Cousin Kate is similar to Havisham by the main female character being hurt by her lover.This is shown by the quote He lured me to his palace home, Woes me for joy thereof, To lead a shameless bleak life, His plaything and his love. This quote shows the poem is similar to Havisham because it shows how the woman was led by the key male character to believe that he loves her, which is different to Porphyrias Lover. It is also similar because it uses oxymoron when it says Also in Cousin Kate, the main character is empathised with by the reader due to the fact that the Great Lord, who she truly loved, left her for her own cousin. O cousin Kate, my love was true, Your love was writ in sand.This quote shows that the key character believes that Kate never loved the Great Lord, and it suggests that she is jealous of her. This is similar to Havisham where the key male character leaves her heartbroken and distressed. However, this is different to Porphyrias Lover as the central relationship in Cousin Kate doesnt get until the end of the poem. In conclusion, Macbeth, Porphyrias Lover, Havisham and Cousin Kate are all similar how they are all based upon the love versus hate theme. In my opinion, the relationships in all three of the poems are very similar, how they have all been hurt through love.However, the relationship in Macbeth is different because the key relationship is shown to the audience as still being intact even through death. All four pieces are linked by having a central relationship between male and female characters, which ends tragically. This is a reoccurring theme throughout the pieces as well as the themes of jealousy, love versus hate, obsession and guilt. The love versus hate theme is very significant, as it is an example of oxymoron itself, as used in the poems. All these pieces are very effective examples of this love versus hate theme represented throughout.

Poverty in Ghana

In recent grades, Ghana has emerged as a leading sylvan in the Western and Central Africa region. It has developed its economy on a scale that could enable it to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) before the 2015 deadline. It also managed a smooth and peaceful political transition in 2008 and 2009, and has created a political and policy environment conducive to economic and social progress and poverty decline. The Ghanaian economy has grown at an average annual rate of 4. 8 per cent over the past two decades.By 2008 GDP growth had reached 7. per cent. The cultivation sector, which contri only ifed 33. 5 per cent of GDP in 2008, remains the countrys major engine of economic growth. Rapid economic progress has all but halved national poverty place, which reach fallen from approximately 50 per cent in 1991 to 28. 5 per cent in 2006. In the last decade, poverty rates dropped by 8. 6 per cent in urban areas and by 10. 4 per cent in country-bred ones. Ghanas growth and pov erty reduction rates are probably the best that have been achieved throughout sub-Saharan Africa in the past 15 years.Where are Ghanas agricultural poor people? Although in that location has been a substantial overall decline in the incidence of poverty in Ghana, poverty still has a firm grip on rural areas, especially in the north. There is a wide disparity in income between people living in the drought-prone northern plains, and those living in the south, where in that location are two growing seasons and greater economic opportunities. Who are Ghanas rural poor people? Just over half the countrys commonwealth lives in rural areas.The poorest parts of Ghana are the savannah regions of the north (the Northern, top(prenominal) East and Upper West regions), where chronic food insecurity is widespread and livelihoods are more vulnerable. Poor rural people have limited access to basic social work, safe water, roads that are accessible year round, and electricity and telephone s ervices. Poverty is most severe among food crop farmers, who are mainly traditional itsy-bitsy-scale producers. About six in go small-scale farmers are poor, and many are women. Women bear heavy workloads.In addition to their domestic chores, they are responsible for about 60 per cent of hoidenish production. More than half the women who head households in rural areas are among the poorest 20 per cent of the population. Why are Ghanas rural people poor? According to the governments poverty reduction strategy paper, low productivity and poorly functioning markets for agricultural outputs are among the main causes of rural poverty. Small-scale farmers lack the technologies and inputs, such(prenominal) as fertilizer and improved seed, that would increase yields.Population pressure leads to shorter fallow periods or even continuous cultivation in the densely inhabited Upper East and Upper West regions, causing soil erosion and loss of fertility. Land degradation poses a long-term t hreat to farmers livelihoods and incomes. Only a small proportion of farmers have access to irrigation. Land ownership and land security are regulated by complex systems that vary widely. Many farmers lack rural infrastructure and equipment for storing, processing and marketing their products.In order to overcome their vulnerability and food insecurity, poor rural populations need help in sustainably increasing their incomes. in effect(p) opportunities exist to link farmers to markets and to red-brickize agriculture. The rural private sector could play an important role in making farming a profitable vexation through access to financial services, farm inputs and linkages to agroprocessors and traders. www. cfr. org Ghana is rich in natural resources and has one of the strongest emerging economies in Africa.The capital city, Accra, is one of the wealthiest and most modern cities on the continent, and is experiencing a period of rapid growth. Ghana is rapidly urbanizing. Despite th is, most of Ghanas poor live in rural areas without basic services such as health care and clean water. Small-scale farmers, who are affected most by rural poverty in Ghana, depend on superannuated farming tools and lack access to improved seeds and fertilizers to increase crop yields. Our Work The hungriness Project has been working in Ghana since 1995 and is empowering partners in 49 epicenter communities to end their own hunger and poverty.Through its integrated approach to rural development, the Epicenter Strategy, The Hunger Project is working with partners to successfully access the basic services needed to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and lead lives of self-reliance. Scaling-Up the Epicenter Strategy Ghana is the first country in which The Hunger Project is scaling up its Epicenter Strategy to provide coverage to a set geographical area and reach significantly more people. In July 2006, The Hunger Project acquire a US$5 million investment to scale-up Hu nger Project work in the Eastern Region of Ghana.By the end of the five-year commitment, The Hunger Project-Ghana aims to have mobilized enough epicenter communities so that each villager in the Eastern Region is within walking distance to an epicenter building. By the end of the second year of its scale-up program, The Hunger Project-Ghana had successfully completed construction of 12 epicenters. Scaling-up has presented a number of challenges to The Hunger Project-Ghana, such as acquisition of land and the mobilization of construction materials.Our staff, however, is furnish with the training and skills to continue to mobilize partners to end their own hunger in the Eastern Region. Empowering Women The Hunger Project-Ghana has pioneered the Womens Empowerment Program (WEP), which empowers women to become strong leaders in their households and communities. The WEP is a series of workshops that focus on legal, civic and reproductive health rights as well as leadership skills for se lected women.The trained women, also known as animators, then carry out community-based educational activities using drama, mini-lectures and discussions. These animators are also trained to provide counseling and distribute non-prescriptive contraceptives. Microfinance Through its Microfinance Program in 2009, The Hunger Project disbursed 1,834 loans totaling $146,421. Partners in Ghana deposited $23,589 in savings during the year. Of the epicenters that are operating in Ghana, three have government-recognized Rural Banks and are self-reliant.

Operation Iraqi Freedom Essay

Since the start of Operation Iraqi Freedom on 20th of March 2003, the media coverage of this event in traditional and new media has been both intense and pervasive. The issue of whether the struggle is justified and of whether Saddam Hussein had indeed violated the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1441 by possessing weapons of stool destruction has been gived in the elapse up to the strugglefare. By the time the coalition processs moved into Iraqi in a war aimed at toppling the Saddam regime, viewing audience were unable to natural spring being bombarded by the onslaught of news and information coming through to them. Front pages of every major newspaper, as well as precious billettime on television and radio network in Sydney and beyond have been devoted to following this war. Even the Internet is awash with breaking news, discussion forums, and every other(a) sort of information not available in the traditional media outlets.With such extensive reporting by al l the different media, it is inevitable that the media bow would impart to vastly differing views in war coverage. This is because having so many people involved in this big media event would mean that the personal biases of the media avowers as well as the editors and journalists would all affect the way that the news is conveyed. Each one of these media gatekeepers would be privately pro or anti-war, and this would inevitably come across to the public in the way that the news in being describe. For example, Peter Jennings, who is the news anchor of the American Broadcasting Corporation is well known for bringing on air his negative perspective slightly the war.According to Singleton, et al (2003 361), with the exception of publicly funded Australian Broadcasting Corporation, most of the other media outlets are privately owned and indeed subject in principle to the direction of the owners, directly or indirectly (through the law of anticipated reactions). Even with the Broad casting Services Act 1992, the Australian media is dominate by only a few concentrated players, which would in turn affect how the media covers the war. John Schwartz, who is a Swinburne University media and communications senior lecturer commented on the wide publicised statistic that all bar one of Rupert Murdochs 170-odd papers and the Fox network have a pro-war position, said that no doubt all his editors are noting Murdochs views, and that Fox is unbelievably badalmost pure government line. (cited in Seccombe 2003 1).However, it is worth noting that even though the different news media locally might adopt a pro or anti-war stance, they would all still be adopting the same western perspective of the war. As Fandy (20031) says, the coverage of the war by Arab TV networks equal Al-Jazeera and Abu Dhabi TV shows a vastly different perspective of the war, such that in comparison, viewers might think that a different war was being reported.This further illustrates the point that t he coverage of the war is always reported in relation to the proximity of the issue at hand, creating some sort of restate standards. For example, according to Frisk (2001 489) Terrorism no longer means terrorism. It is not a definition it is a political contrivance. Terrorists are those who use violence against the place that is using the word. To adopt the word means that we have taken a side in the Middle East, not amid right and wrong, good and evil, David and Goliath, tho with one side of combatants against another. For journalists in the Middle East, the use of the word terrorism is akin to holding a gun its employment turns the reporter into a instrumentalist in the war.Parenti (1986 30) asserts that the mass media echtly are highly centralised outlets that proffer a remarkably homogenised fare. The wide use of news wires like Associated Press and Reuters by all the major broadsheets in Australia means that the war coverage locally would be generically the same. Even i f the local newspapers and television networks patch up to send their own reporters to the Gulf to get a different perspectives, it would still be not make a difference, as they are all lotion the same press conferences given by Central Command. They are also subjected to pool arrangements at certain times, when only selected journalists and cameramen would be allowed to take footages in the welkin due to logistical constraints. This means that much of the western world would be viewing the same footages on television no progeny which network invest a viewer was watching the news on.Advances in technology such as the satellite makes it possible technically for the live presentation of the war in the Gulf to the rest of the world (Wood 1967 27). The relatively new feature of war reporting, which involves embedding journalists and cameramen with coalition troops also mean that the war has turned into some kind of truthfulness show for viewers who turn on the television. Viewers can now get live feed from the battlefield, and benefit from the first-hand exclusives and war perspectives from the embedded reporters and cameramen who travel with the legions regiments and military units. However, this new aspect of war journalism is not without its drawbacks.While viewers do get immediate breaking news coverage, such technological advances have its downsides as well. The immediate streaming of live feeds to TV stations means that viewers are subject to the speculations of the reporters who are stationed in the Gulf before any official confirmation of the news can be received. For example, there was an instance when, according to Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism (2003 1)embedded correspondents for several news organisations reported see a convoy of up to 120 Iraqi tanks leaving the southern city of Basra, and most news outlets reported a large troop movement. The next day, a spokesman for the British military said the massive movement was really just 14 t anks.Viewers can also get a perverted view of the war, as it is virtually impossible for the journalists to report the news with in a truly objective and impartial light when they are stationed indoors the battalions, experiencing camaraderie with the troops and the savouring the excitement of being in the frontline in the midst of all the action. Objectivity was to include a strict adherence to facts, a healthy scepticism of institutions, and a need to link facts together to form a larger picture of the war (Willis 1991 60). As gatekeepers, the media thus shows a constructed, and mostly distorted version of what is reality.In fact, as Howard Kurtz, a journalist with The Washington Post puts it, they have been taking considerable flak for overly sympathetic reporting, dismissed by some by some part of the military propaganda machine (cited in Tee 2003 2).According to Williams (1999 4), propaganda disseminated during wartime is based around short- to medium term objectives to celeb rate actual achievement or hide embarrassmentsto invoke national pride, create a feeling of righteousness and incite hatred for the enemy . Hence, it is not surprising the media bias and perceptions do play a part in the ensuring the scope and accuracy of the war coverage. Even the publicly funded ABC is shaping its products to fit its perceived audience, and this is not a perspective which is value-neutral (Lumby 1999 41).Since there are so many different media sources competing for the viewers attention, media owners might also want their reporters to sensationalise their coverage to stand out from the competition. such(prenominal) of what is deemed to be newsworthy is often centered on the governments mistakes, on sensation and crisis (Singleton, et al 2003 360). As Moeller (1999 34) puts it, Media moguls have long known that suffering, quite than good news, sells. Viewers are not interested in the mundane daily news they would rather watch something extraordinary or thrilling. However, no matter how bias the media coverage is, it might not actually have much of an effect on the viewers who have already made up their minds about the war. This is because, according to the cognitive dissonance theory, we have, built into the workings of our mind, a mechanism that creates an un sympathizerable feeling of dissonance, or lack of harmony, when we become aware of some variety among the various attitudes, beliefs, and items of knowledge that constitute our mental store (Gray 2002 520). These individuals are likely to be their own media gatekeepers, filtering out information that might cause them to doubt their own current view, and looking out only for information that would reinforce it.Although the media might not explicitly tell the public what to think, it manages to get them thinking about the war in general and the various issues involved, via the agenda-setting function of the media that the public has been subjected to. According to Roscoe et al (cited in Agenda Setting Setting the Terms of Reference 20001)Rather than seeing the media as telling the viewer what to think, television presentations can be seen as setting the agenda in terms of how and which issues should be discussed television presentations frame the events in such a way as to promote particular accounts as being the legitimate and valid, while other accounts are excluded and marginalised. By doing so, the parameters within which the debate can be conducted are set outthe media can be seen as having the power to frame the debate by promoting the legitimacy of certain representations and accountsviewers are active but within the parameters set by the text.According to Ward (2002 405), the micro-level equivalent to this function would be that of agenda-priming, where individuals make judgments about issues based on information immediately on hand and from easily retrieved memories. The constant coverage of the war in all the different news mediums means that viewers wo uld bank that the war is an important issue, worthy of thought and discussion.While news from the traditional forms of media like television, radio and newspapers may be limited by time and topographic point constraints, as well as being highly selective and bias, the emergence of the Internet has made it possible for people to garner information about the war from all angles. This development of technology makes it possible for viewers to get a balanced view of the war through alternate sources from the Internet in the comfort of their homes, particularly in Australia, where computer ownership and Internet access is becoming widespread (Singleton et al 2003 369). The public can now choose to educate themselves by getting both sides of the story, from both the western media, as well as the angle taken by the Gulf media. Nevertheless, quality coverage and a scrap to political agenda setting will depend on the use of insights from both the domestic and foreign environments to exten d the parameters of news coverage, commentary and debate in the Australian media (Payne 2000 167).According to investigative journalist John Pilger, (in Propaganda Wars 20033), the quality of the debate is very high among the publicturn to the letters page or discover to people in their homes and shops. Instead of taking an apathetic attitude towards this Gulf War, the public has taken a more pro-active stand by organising peace rallies as well as setting up various charities and donations for post-war Iraq.Hence, even though there is some form of media bias present in the pervasive coverage of the war in all forms of media locally, it has nevertheless contributed to the reasoned debate, and not public hysteria over the war.ReferencesAgenda Setting Setting the Terms of Reference, Online, 6 February 2000 lastUpdate, in stock(predicate) http//wwww.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/media/setterms.html 6 May 2003.Fandy, M. 2003, Perceptions where Al-Jazeera & Co. are coming from ,The Washington Post, March 30 B01, viewed 4 April 2003, LexisNexis All refreshfuls.Frisk, R. 2001, Pity the Nation Lebanon at War, Oxford New York OxfordUniversity Press.Gray, P. 2002, Psychology, 4th rev. ed., New York Worth Publishers.Lumby, C. 1999, Gotcha Life in a Tabloid World, St Leonards Allen and Unwin.Moeller, S. D. 1999, Compassion Fatigue How the Media sell Disease, Famine,War and Death, New York Routledge.Parenti, M. 1986, Inventing man The politics of the mass media, New York StMartins Press.Payne, P. 2000, Coverage of Australias involvement in the Vietnam War inForeign devils and other journalists, eds D. Kingsbury, E. Loo & P. Payne,Clayton Monash Asia Institute.Propaganda Wars (radio program), 30 January 2003. The Media Report, ABC wirelessInternational, Presenter M. OReagan.Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism. Online. 27 March 2003 last update.Available http//www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/features/jan-june03/embed_3-27_printout.html 6 May 2003.Seccombe, M 2003, Propaganda Games Give a Distorted View of Reality, SydneyMorning Herald, 26 March, Available www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/25/1048354604340.html 2 April 2003.Singleton, Aitkin, Jinks & Warhurst 2003, Australian Political Institutions, 6th rev.ed., Melbourne Longman.Tee, H. C. 2003, War The Ultimate Reality Show, The Straits Times, 7 April,Available http//straitstimes.asia1.com.sg/life/story/0,4386181610,00.html 8 April 2003.Ward, I. 2002, Media Power In Government, Politics and Power in Australia, eds. JSummers, D. Woodward & A. Parkin, Melbourne, Longman.Williams, J. F. 1999, Anzacs, the Media and the Great War, Sydney University ofNew South Wales Press.Willis, J. 1991, The Shadow World Life between the News Media and Reality,New York Praeger.Wood, W. A. 1967, Electronic Journalism., New York & London Columbia

Bad News Messages

Two Questions In your opinion, when a caller-up suffers a setback, should you soften the repair by letting the high-risk news out a little at a epoch? Why or why not? AND Is intentionally de-emphasizing bad news the same as distorting graphs and charts to de-emphasize unfavorable data? Why or why not? Looking forward to hearing your thoughts. ANSWERS When a come with suffers a setback, delivering the bad news a little at a time creates confusion and uncertainty about the true nature and tip of the problem, which gives rally to complexities or difficulties in effectively addressing the situation.Doing so also creates a rather negative image of the company, especially when interested parties or stakeholders learn about the extent of the bad news and the implications to them from other sources. It is inevitable for companies to suffer setbacks throughout its operations because of the number of poorly managed and uncontrollable factors influencing companies. However, setbacks even tually lead to solutions but the effectiveness depends on the manner that the setback is recognized, analyzed, communicated and handled.Communicating bad news in its full gravity but delivering this in an objective and rational manner by providing all apposite facts, assessment of the situation, and alternative solutions to draw constructive discussions on the best action or response constitutes a more fulfilling management of bad news messages. De-emphasizing the companys bad news amounts to the distortion of graphical data because in both cases, the company is manipulating facts to present a different view of the situation, often in favor of the company.Everyone What about the media leaks? Right now many companies are downsizing and they learn about this by reading news stories first. Are any of you on the job(p) for a company going through this? How is the company handling ANSWERS In the age of schooling, it is nearly impossible for large corporations to prevent media leaks. S ometimes, media leaks are even crafted by the top management of companies as a means of controlling or influencing the ultimate outcome of whatever crisis is occurring.By leaking information to the media, companies are able to manage the impact of the situation and soften negative blows to the company or ensure that the information communicated to the public is accurate and true. As part of a non-profit organization, stakeholders often learn information on a nationwide corporate downsizing, during the height or even after the actual fallout.Due to the different structure and practices in a non-profit organization, it takes some time before the lower rung of the organizational structure experience the effects of downsizing, and then, it is no secret. However, in instances when the media get hold of information on the downsizing, the organization direct opens communication lines to dialogue with the interested parties to explain or clarify and allay fears and suspicions.

Jeanne Lewis at Steples

Harvard Business School 9-400-065 Rev. July 24, 2000 Jeanne Lewis at Staples, Inc. (A) (Abridged) op YO INC Six months from now, on February 1, 1998, Jeanne Lewis (HBS 92) would become the senior ungodliness president of trade at Staples, Inc. (Staples), a nationwide index supplies superstore. After 10 months working side by side with Todd Krasnow, the current executive iniquity president of marketing, Lewis was be approaching familiar with the department. Her initial assessment led her to wonder if the departments operating style was suited to evolving competitive realities.As KrasnoWs heir apparent, Lewis anted to be involved in shaping the departments priorities for the forthcoming year. The strategic planning process traditionally began around this cartridge holder in August, and Lewis wondered if the time to start taking action had arrived. Thus far, 1997 had been a trying year for the company the Federal Trade Commission had challenged Staples proposed merger with Office Depot, and the two companies had recently abandoned 10 months of merger efforts.At that time, Chairman and chief operating officer Tom Stemberg reaffirmed his commitment that Staples would grow from a $5 billion company to a $10 billion company by the turn of the century. Staples not only when had to grow bigger, it also had to grow better, as analysts had become accustomed to the companys 14 consecutive quarters of earnings-per-share growth in excess of 30%. The theme of the upcoming year was twofold strong growth and more effective execution. c Lewis believed that Stembergs pronouncement to look for the silver lining in the failed merger and to take to flavor the lessons of the merger could serve as a call to action for the marketing department. tradeing, which served as both an architect and driver of the brand, would play a critical utilisation in Staples continued success. Lewis knew that Staples could survive only if it was prepared to pack rid of outmoded ideas and repla ce them with new onesa philosophy shared by Krasnow. scarcely Lewis also knew that it could be trigntening to give up the ideas that nad made the company successful.Furthermore, the marketing staff was understandably apprehensive about KrasnoWs planned departure, and many were already mourning his loss. Lewis explained No While the merger distractions were going on, things that maybe should have been dealt with, werent. Now, I wanted to make it clear that a new person was coming on oard in this area, and fgure out how we could get back to business. We needed to refocus on building our business, because it was as competitive as ever, and we had lost a duet of beats in a few marketing areas while busy with the merger.We were at a turning point in the marketing department, as contradictory to being long past it. Because of the confluence of external events as well as our own internal complexity, if we didnt change, then I was concerned it would start to interpret eventually in sale s. search Associate Jennifer M. Suesse prepared this case under the supervision of Professor Linda A. Hill as the basis for class discussion instead than to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. It is an abridged version of an earlier case, Jeanne Lewis at Staples, Inc. (A), HBS No. 499-041, prepared by Research Associate Kristin C.Doughty under the supervision of Professor Linda A. Hill. Some names have been disguised. Copyright 2000 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies or request authorization to reproduce materials, call 1-800-545-7685, write Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163, or go to http//www. hbsp. harvard. edu. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any meanselectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwisewithout the permission of Harvard Business School. This document is a uthorized for use only by Harutyun Gevorgyan at HE OTHER until November 2014. Copying or posting is an infringement of copyright. emailprotected harvard. edu or 617. 783. 7860. 400-065 Lewis knew the marketing departments role in ensuring success was twofold maintaining the delicate balance between meeting short-term financial objectives ith appropriate promotional tactics and building client loyalty and retention witn an ettective marketing strategy and investigating ways to leverage Staples brand and broaden its franchise.She also had specific questions about some of the departments structures, systems, and staffing. She was eager to get started, but recognized the risks of doing too much, too fast My style is that I want things to come on quickly. When I see thingseither a new hassle someone has never had to fgure out before, or where theyVe Just had a different sense of timingI Jump in and say, heres the way to do it, and that makes hange happen quickly. But that could limit m y ability to work across and with the organization.I could end up spending too much time managing down and not enough time making broader, more expansive impact by managing across the organization as well. Staples Background (1985-1991)1 In 1985, Tom Stemberg (HBS 73), known for his marketing sa. n. y and innovations in the staid supermarket industry (as vice president of sales at Star Market, and president of First National Supermarket), pioneered the concept of the office supplies superstore. A Toys R Us of office supplies, Staples, the Office Superstore would provide completeness, convenience, informed assistance as well as attractive prices overing everything from coffee to computer software for the small-business customer. 2 Initial customer seek indicated that most small businesses did not track their total expenditures for office products closely, nor were they aware that they were paying on average 40% more for them than large corporations. To communicate the nest egg and increased convenience of its new way of procuring office supplies, Staples management was prepared to invest heavily in marketing. Staples message would emphasize discounts and convenience, leaving customers free from the hassles of relations with long lines, order forms, and multiple suppliers.For the pivotal role of director of marketing, Stemberg hired Todd Krasnow, a 28-year- old HBS graduate who had worked in marketing at Star Market with Stembergs new VP of operations. In the early days, Stembergs team of five (himself, Krasnow, CFO, VP of operations, VP of merchandising) each had their own primary spheres of responsibility, but they all worked very closely together, doing whatever it took to get the trouble done. They began the mornings with a 700 0clock meeting, reconvened for a orking lunch, and generally worked through the evening until 1000 0clock.

Is The Secret Sharer an appropriate title for this short story? Essay

1. Is The Secret Sh arer an appropriate title for this short story? Support your ideas with detail from the text.In The Secret Sharer, a captain escapes his ship where he was held captive after murdering a member of the crew. He swims to another ship and admits the whole truth to the captain. Both captains have bad relationships with their crew and they empathise with each other. Legatt, who came from the other ship, is to be kept hush-hush from the crew as his life depends on it. They have to keep quiet and whisper. An intense relationship is built up between the two of them.The captain always refers to Legatt as my other self, my double or my second self. This indicates that they belong together such as lovers. It implies that they are one person and are bound together. Legatt tells the captain immediately that he just killed a man and the captain just accepts it without question. He understands why he did it. They trust each other totally. Between them they know everything about each other, they knew each other before their eyes met. For Legatt to expose himself to a spot stranger there would have to be a bond. It is a twisted love at first sight.Another aspect of the titles secretively is brotherhood. The two captains conspire together like brothers. Whispering side by side, with our dark heads together and our backs to the door, anybody bold enough to open it stealthily would have been hardened to the uncanny sight of a double captain busy talking in whispers with his other self. They both look alike and are conversing in whispers. They are even sitting the same way. Like two little twin brothers making up some plan, which will guarantee that they get into trouble. This comes before overlap a secret this is the creation of a secret, which will only be between those two, so effectively they are sharing the secret.Legatts existence is so secret that the captain starts to doubt he even exists. He is so secret that he cannot exist. An irresistible doubt of his existence flickered through my mind. Can it be, I asked myself, that he is not visible to other eyes than mine? He begins to think that Legatt is so secret, that he is imagining him. This shows us that the relationship is so secret and fantastic, that he cannot accept it. Legatt is barely described we know only that he has dark hair, is pale and resembles the captain.In the beginning he was glowing phosphorescently, which reminds us of ghost. So he is roughly spirit like. This reflects the title in that the secrectness of his existence cannot be shared. The captain describes Legatt to be like himself, he is a mirror. The captain can understand Legatt instantly as if he were in his shoes. He shares his very soul with Legatt, which is so unreal he cant believe it. Its double secret, materialistically he cannot tell the crew and has to hide him, and spiritually because he has shared his heart with Legatt.In conclusion, The Secret Sharer is an appropriate title for this account. The title can be interpreted into different meanings all of which can be associated directly to the story. The title focuses wholly on the relationship between the captain and Legatt.

The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidenceâ€Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification

fair play warble Behav (2010) 34337347 DOI 10. coulomb7/s10979-009-9192-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE The proceeds of Retention Interval on the cartelAccuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification James Sauer ? Neil brewer ? Tick Zweck ? Nathan Weber Published online 22 July 2009 O Ameri raise psychology- rightfulness Society/Division 41 of the American Psychological Association 2009 Abstract Recent question utilize a exemplificationisation antenna indicates that witness authorization assessments obtained fastly after a positive denomination closing provide a utilitarian guide as to the likely trueness of the realisation.This culture extended interrogation on the boundary terminal figures of the cartel the true (CA) race by varying the computer storage breakup amid convert and denomination analyze. Participants (N = 1,063) viewed unmatched of five different tar- gets in a community setting and attempted an realisation from an 8-person orchestrate-present or - rattlebrained wag either flyingly or several weeks later. Comp bed to the immediate condition, the wait condition relieve oneselfd greater whatsoeverplace assertion and dismount diagnosticity.However, for selectors at both remembering separations there was a hatefulingful CA likenessship and diagnosticity was much stronger at steep than low authority levels. Keywords Eyewitness credit Confidence the true Retention interval normalisation Criminal justice systems often use witness identifica- tion say when assessing the likely guilt of a defendant or defendant. Yet, the likelihood of witness denomination error is well documented by laboratory- and field-based look for demonst evaluation that, when presented with a card J.Sauer N. brewer (&) T. Zweck N. Weber School of psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia e-mail neil. emailprotected edu. au Present Address J. Sauer subdivision of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK and asked to make an identification decision, witnesses well-nightimes (a) misidentify innocent wit pieces as the culprit or (b) drain to identify the culprit when (s)he is present in the lineup (Cutler & Penrod, 1995 Innocence Project, 2009 Pike, Brace, & Kynan, 2002 Wells et al. , 1998). Such dentification errors divert fact-finding attention from the definite culprit and atomic number 18 likely to under- mine the pieceiveness of the criminal justice system. Their come to has motivated a substantial amount of research aimed at identifying markers capable of discriminating accurate from wrong identification decisions. Eyewitness faith is one possible marker of iden- tification accuracy that has been utilize by rhetorical decision makers. Not unless has self-assertion been endorsed by the U. S. Supreme Court as one of the criteria to be acquireed when assessing the likely accuracy of identification evidence (Neil v.Biggers, 1972) but there is also a substantial books demonst rank that eyewitness combine decides assessments of likely identification accuracy do by police officers, lawyers, jurors, and jury-eligible samples (e. g. , Bradfield & Wells, 2000 Brewer & Burke, 2002 Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve, 1988 Deffenbacher & Loftus, 1982 Lindsay, Wells, & Rumpel, 1981). More everyplace, there are sound theoretical grounds for pre- dicting a substantive surenessaccuracy (CA) alliance for eyewitness identification decisions, which are a form of recognition recollection decision.A emergence of theories of decision reservation and authority processingsuch as signal detection theory (Egan, 1958 Green & Swets, 1966 Mac- millan & Creelman, 1991) and accumulator models of decision making and perceptual discrimination (Van Zandt, 2000 Vickers, 1979)suggest a shared ostensibleial basis for retort and response trustfulness in recognition entrepot tasks. few(prenominal) classes of theory hold that arrogance stems from the sam e evidence that drives the decision-making ? 123 338 rightfulness Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?process and, consequently, conditions facilitating accurate responding (e. . , pertinacious exposure durations, focused atten- tion, short guardianship intervals) should also produce blue boldness. Conversely, conditions that hinder accurate responding should also lead to decreased assertion. Although there have been recurrent demonstrations of shaky or, at best, modest, CA coefficient of correlations (e. g. , Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987 Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995), empirical support for the diagnostic utility of eyewitness identification surenessunder certain con- ditionshas grown (e. g. Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin, Olsson, & Winman, 1996 Lindsay, Nilsen, & Read, 2000 Lindsay, Read, & Sharma, 1998 Sauer, Brewer, & Wells, 2008 Sauerland & Sporer, 2009 Weber & Brewer, 2004). Continued research interest in the CA relationship has been stimulated by deuce lines o f enquiry suggesting that the early correlational work under adjudicated the CA relationship. First, Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) argued that the homo- geneity of encode and exam conditions (e. g. , exposure duration, witnesses attention to the target foreplay, keeping interval, etc. evident in most correlational investigations of the CA relationship for eyewitness iden- tification tasks restricts variation in the quality of actors memories for the target. Thus, variations in accuracy and confidence are limited, and the CA relationship underestimated. Lindsay et al. demonstrated substantial CA correlations across participants making a positive identification when witnessing conditions were alter to produce changes in the quality of the witness reposition for the target.Second, Juslin et al. (1996) argued that the point-biserial correlation provides only a peculiar(a) vista on the CA relationship, whereas an alternative approachcalibra- tionprovides (a) a more detailed repre sentation of the CA relationship and (b) more forensically useful entropy. The normalisation approach equations the objective and sub- jective probabilities of a response being lay out, determine the proportion of correct responses at each confidence level (typically measured on 0100% scale).Perfect calibration is obtained when, for example, 100% of all responses make with 100% confidence are accurate, 90% of all responses do with 90% confidence are accurate, etc. This affirma- tion is typically plotted on a graph, with the resulting calibration campaign compared to the ideal function, to assess the CA relationship. In accompaniment to optical inspection of the curve, the calibration approach incorporates a number of statistical tools for assessing the CA relation. First, the cal- ibration (C) statistic indexes the stage of correspondence surrounded by the subjective assessment (i. e. confidence) and the objective probability (i. e. , accuracy) of correct recognition, an d varies from 0 (perfect calibration) to 1. To calculate the C statistic, the going away betwixt proportion correct and confidence level is computed, and squared, for each confidence level. These values, each multiplied by the number of judgments at the respective confidence level, are then summed and divided by the total number of judgments in the sample. Second, the computation of an everywhere/under- confidence (O/U) statistic indicates the outcome to which participants are, mainly, more or less surefooted than they are accurate.The O/U statistic is metric by subtracting the mean accuracy from the mean confidence of the sample. The O/U statistic can range from -1 to 1, with negative and positive gobs indicating underconfidence and overconfi- dence, respectively. Finally, proclamation (like the CA correlation) assesses the extent to which confidence dis- criminates correct from incorrect decisions. The Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) ranges from 0 (no discrimination) to 1 (perfect discrimination).The forensic utility of the cali- bration approach, when compared to correlation, lies in its indication of probable accuracy for each level of confidence. As Juslin et al. (1996) communication channel, the familiarity that the CA correlation is, for example, . 28 does not help assess the accuracy of an individual identification made with 80% confidence. On the other hand, knowing that 80% (or 70, or 90%) of identifications made with 80% confidence are cor- rect provides a guide for assessing the likely dependableness of an individual identification decision.Studies employ the calibration approach have not only provided detailed information on the CA relationship but, in so doing, have also demonstrated robust CA relation- ships when participants positively identify a lineup member as the culprit (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin et al. , 1996 Sauerland & Sporer, 2009), provided confi- dence is assessed immediately after the identification is made (Bradfield, Wells, & Olson, 2002 Brewer, Weber, & Semmler, 2007). The reason for the pitiable CA relations typically observed for non-choosers remains unclear.However, it is well tacit wherefore breaking the assess- ment of confidence is harmful to the CA relation. As outlined above, the relationship between memory quality, confidence, and accuracy is vestigial to the CA rela- tionship. However, confidence can be shaped not only by memory quality but also by various social, environmental, and meta-cognitive work outs (see Wells, 1993). As the influence of these non-memorial factors increases, the degree to which confidence reflects the evidential basis it shares with accuracy decreases and, in turn, the CA relation weakens.Research runninging the boundary conditions for CA cali- bration is under way. The difference in CA relations for choosers and non-choosers, and the deleterious launchs of delaying assessments of confidence on the CA relationship, are well documented. Brew er and Wells (2006) examined the put ups on CA calibration of varying instructional bias, foil resemblingity, and target-absent base rates, eon Weber and Brewer (2003) tried and true the perfume of varying the 123 justice Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 339 confidence scale on CA calibration in basic face recogni- tion tasks. The present memorize further probes the boundary conditions for CA calibration by investigating the effects of varying the store interval between encoding and the identification test on the CA relationship. Retention interval is a variable of particular interest for cardinal main reasons. First, witnesses to actual offences com- monly experience delays ranging from hours to months between viewing an event and being asked to make an identification decision. For example, Pike et al. 2002) report UK analyze selective information revealing a median delay of over 10 weeks between police requesting and administering a lineup, although they distinguishd that m ore conservative esti- mates put the average delay at just over a month. Regardless, it seems safe to assume that the average retention interval for the witness (i. e. , between viewing the crime and viewing the lineup) is monthlong. In contrast, retention intervals employed to date in laboratory-based investigations of CA calibration for eyewitness (e. g. , 15 min in Brewer & Wells, 2006) and face recognition memory tasks (e. . , 310 min in Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006) are considerably shorter and less vary in range. Juslin et al. s (1996) CA calibration national provides an exception by employing 1 h and 1 week retention intervals, and their findings are addressed below. The ferocity placed on confidence by decision makers in the forensic setting makes understanding the effect of length- ened delays on the efficacy of confidence in discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions a reckon of forensic significance.Second, theories of recognition and recall memory function suggest that, in general, the quantity, quality, and/ or accessibility of information stored in memory decreases over time. This claim is supported by a large body of research literature demonst grade that, across a variety of memory task paradigms, increases in retention interval generally produce decreases in recognition and recall memory performance (e. g. , Deffenbacher, Bornstein, McGorty, & Penrod, 2008 Ebbinghaus, 1964 Schacter, 1999). Thus, variations in retention interval should produce variations in accuracy. turn memory cogency is the pro- posed basis for both confidence and accuracy (e. g. , Egan, 1958 Green & Swets, 1966 Macmillan & Creelman, 1991) and, hence, variations in memory strength should affect both components of the CA relationship, it is unclear whether the effects on confidence and accuracy will be equivalent. Previous research demonstrates that changes in accuracy are not always accompanied by equivalent changes in confidence (e. g. , Web er & Brewer, 2004) and, further, that various utilisations can influence confi- dence, and the CA association, nonsymbiotic of effects on accuracy (e. . , Busey, Tunnicliff, Loftus, & Loftus, 2000). Investigations of the CA relation for eyewitness recall memory suggest that restate questioning produces con- fidence inflation (Shaw, 1996 Shaw & McClure, 1996). For recognition memory, providing post-identification feedback, encouraging witnesses to reflect on whether their encoding conditions were likely to facilitate or hinder identification accuracy, and having witnesses consider their behavior during the identification process all produce variations in the CA relation, without affecting accuracy (e. g. , Bradfield et al. 2002 Brewer, Keast, & Rishworth, 2002 Kassin, 1985 Kassin, Rigby, & Castillo, 1991). In sum, it is clear that despite the strong theoretical link between confidence, accuracy, and memory strength, non- memorial factors can lead to CA dissociation. Thus, while th e effect of change magnitude retention interval on memory strength (and accuracy) is predictable, the effect of increased retention interval on CA calibration is not. Third, while numerous studies have investigated the effect of varied retention interval on recognition and recall memory accuracy (see Deffenbacher et al. 2008 for a review), studies probing the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship are scarce. Lindsay et al. (1998) varied retention interval, but it was manipulated in conjunction with a number of other variables in an effort to exert a compounded effect on memory quality. Further, they assessed the CA relation using correlation and, thus, their findings do not allow specific predictions regarding CA calibration (see also Lindsay et al. , 1981). As men- tioned above, Juslin et al. varied retention interval and found no ifference in CA calibration for identifications made after retention intervals of 1 h and 1 week. However, Juslin et al. s investig ation is limited in two important ways. First, their manipulation of retention interval exerted a negligible effect on accuracy (correct identification rates were . 69 and . 64 for the 1 h and 1 week conditions, respectively). Thus, there is no evidence that participants memories were challenged by the superfluous delay, and these findings are unable to speak to the effect of delay- induced memory adulteration on CA calibration. Juslin et al. resented an redundant CA calibration curve, based on a different informationset from that described in the article, which (a) combined data from a 1 week and 3 month retention interval condition and (b) suggested a meaningful CA relation in the pep pill half(prenominal) of the confidence scale. However, for three reasons, this curve is not edifying regarding the effect of retention interval. First, the exper- imental methodology and data underpinning this curve remain (to our knowledge) unpublished. Second, the absence of each accuracy data precludes an assessment of any decline in memory associated with the increased retention interval.Third, derivation of a calibration curve given such a small sample required collapsing data across retention interval conditions, and no indication was given of the relevant contribution of data from each retention 123 340 justice Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?interval condition. Thus, we have no way of knowing to what extent this curve reflects the influence of either the shorter or longer of the two retention intervals. Simply put, Juslin et al. s initial manipulation of retention interval was not strong enough to affect memory quality, and the introduction of the additional data did not overcome this limitation.Second, after presenting a lineup but prior to making an identification decision, Juslin et al. (1996) had participants rate their confidence that any lineup member was presented at encoding. Brewer et al. (2002) found that having par- ticipants consider encoding condition s prior to rating confidence improved CA calibration. In a similar way Juslin et al. s initial rating task may have aided calibration. For example, if a participant rates the likelihood that a lineup member was present at encoding as high, (s)he is likely to pick and do so with high confidence.Alterna- tively, if (s)he rates this likelihood as low but still chooses, confidence (and accuracy) is likely to be low. This pre- decision rating task may have improved CA calibration. Further, other research suggests that encouraging witnesses to consider confidence prior to making an identification can alter the decision making process and decision accuracy (e. g. , Fleet, Brigham, & Bothwell, 1987). In addition to these two major limitations, two idiosyn- crasies in Juslin et al. s (1996) methodology may have affected the CA relation observed.First, Juslin et al. used a target-absent base rate of . 25, rather than the . 50 base rate typical of eyewitness CA calibration research (and used in this research). succession there is no reason to assume a . 50 target-absent base rate in the utilize setting (with the typ- ically used . 50 target-absent base rate perhaps representing a considerable overestimation), differences in the target- absent base rate affect CA calibration (Brewer & Wells, 2006). Second, the research workers provided instructions on calibration and interpretation of the confidence scale.Prior to eliciting confidence estimates, Juslin et al. informed participants that a positive identification accompanied by a confidence estimate of 0% amounted to a contradiction. While this logic may be sound, positive identifications are sometimes made with very low (even 0%) confidence, and this instruction may have influenced participants confi- dence estimates and, consequently, the CA relationship observed. Taken together, these differences are sufficient to raise doubts approximately the generalizability of Juslin et al. s findings.Specifically, given that ac curacy was barely affected by the manipulation, and that the rating task and lower target-absent base rate may have get upd calibra- tion and reduced underconfidence (cf. Brewer et al. , 2002 Brewer & Wells, 2006), Juslin et al. s (1996) study does not represent an adequate test of the effect of increased reten- tion interval on CA calibration. CA calibration in Juslin et al. s shorter retention interval condition was already strong. Thus, any over-estimation of the CA relation resulting from Juslin et al. s methodology would most likely also manifest in the longer retention interval, increasing the likelihood of obtaining similar CA relations across conditions. CA calibration research in the eyewitness identification area is in its infancy. The paucity of research in this area is intelligible given the large number of participants required to generate stable estimates of CA calibration. Indeed, most of what is currently understood in this area relies on laboratory research using a limited range of stimulus materials. Only one study has previously exam- ined CA calibration using a field study methodology (Sauerland & Sporer, 2009).The present research advances understanding of the CA relationship in three main ways. First, we used the CA calibration approach to examine the effect of retention interval on the CA relation, differentiate the CA relation for a virtually immediate identification test with that for one conducted between 3 and 7 weeks after the encoding event (and producing lower identification accuracy). Second, we used five different sets of encoding and test stimuli and, third, we tested the robustness of the CA relation in a field setting that provided varied and more realistic encoding conditions (cf.Lindsay et al. , 1998). METHOD Design A 2 (retention interval immediate test versus hold up test) 9 2 (target-presence present versus absent), between- subjects design was used to test the effect of varied retention interval on the confidenceaccu racy relationship using multiple target stimuli in a field setting. Participants A total of 1,063 (548 female) participants provided data for this research. Participant ages ranged from 15 to 85 (M = 29. 21, SD = 14. 33). A functional kitchen range of the Eng- lish language was the only prerequisite for participation. MaterialsPhotographs of the target were cropped to present the individual, from the shoulders up, against a plain white/ gray background, and were some 55 mm 9 55 mm in size. Non-target (i. e. , foil) photographs were selected from our laboratorys large database using a match-description strategy, with foil selection requiring agreement between the detectives and the experimenter from each pair that the foils matched the targets 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 341 ?description. In sum, five different sets of target-present and target-absent lineups were constructed.For each target, identical foils were used for target-present and -absent lineups. Target-absent li neups were created by substitution the target with another foil photograph. However, as dis- cussed in the Results section, because the designation of individual foils as target-replacements was arbitrary, the target-replacement is not analogous to an innocent laughable. Procedure Ten female, third-year honors psychological science students col- lected data as part of a work experience course-component. The 10 students split into pairs with one acting as the researcher and the other as the target.Targets were of either Caucasian or Mediterranean appearance. Data were collected at various locations ranging from on-campus to city streets to parking lot areas. While the target remained out of sight, the researcher approached members of the public (individually) and asked if they would like to participate in a psychology experiment. If the individual agreed, the researcher signaled to her partner who moved into the participants view, and remained in view for 10 s. Targets were viewed at a pre-measured distance of 10 m, and participants were instructed to attend to the target for the full 10 s.After encoding, participants were allocated to either an immediate or detain testing condition. Data were obtained from 691 participants in the immediate condition and from 372 participants in the retard condition (i. e. , only about 55% of participants approached in the delay condition responded). Participants in the immediate con- dition were asked to perform an identification task. The researcher read the following instructions to the partici- pant Im now going to ask you to adjudicate and pick the person you just saw out of a group of photographs on this sheet The researcher then presented the participant with a laminated piece of A4 paper displaying eight, clearly numbered, color photographs organized into two rows of cardinal faces. The instructions continued The person may or may not be present in the lineup. If you think the person is not present, please say n ot present. Please indicate the number of the person who is the person you have just viewed. The researcher then recorded the participants response, asked the participant to indicate their confidence in the accuracy of their response on an 11-point scale (0100%), and collected some demographic information.Participants in the retard condition provided an email address and were contacted approximately 1821 geezerhood after encoding, and provided with a link to an online data collection system. Actual retention intervals ranged from 20 to 50 days (M = 23, SD = 5). When entered into the system, participant email addresses were matched to the relevant researcher/target pair to ensure that each partici- pant viewed the correct lineup for their target stimulus. Participants accessed the online system and were presented with instructions generally identical to those reported above.However, rather than indicating responses verbally, participants in the slow condition made identification decisions by either (a) clicking the photo of the lineup member they believed to be the target, or (b) clicking a button labeled Not Present at the bottom of the screen. Similarly, participants entered their confidence estimate by clicking one of eleven on-screen buttons representing the levels of confidence indicated above. Participants in the delayed condition were asked for the same demographic information as those in the immediate condition.Target- presence was counterbalanced in both the immediate and delayed conditions to achieve an pertain number of target- present and -absent trials. RESULTS Retention Interval and Accuracy Chi-square analyses performed on response accuracy for the delayed and immediate conditions found predictable effects of retention interval for both choosers, v2(1, N = 614) = 11. 59, p . 001, w = 0. 14, and non-choosers, v2(1, N = 449) = 13. 85, p. 001, w = 0. 18.In both causal agencys, accuracy was greater in the immediate condition (62 and 82% for ch oosers and non-choosers, respectively) than in the delayed condition (47 and 66% for choosers and non- choosers, respectively). Thus, the effect of increased retention interval on identification accuracy was tenacious with the expected reduction in memory quality. As found by Juslin et al. (1996) and Sauerland & Sporer (2009), accuracy rates for non-choosers were importantly higher than for choosers in both the immediate, v2(1, N = 691) = 32. 24, p . 001, w = 0. 22, and delayed condi- tions, v2(1, N = 372) = 13. 4, p . 001, w = 0. 19. The present non-chooser accuracy and diagnosticity data (see below) lend support to previous research demonstrating that lineup rejections can inform assessments of the likely guilt of a shadowy (e. g. , Clark, Howell, & Davey, 2008 Wells & Olson, 2002). Retention Interval and the CA Relation To enhance the stability of the plotted CA calibration functions, confidence data were collapsed from the 11 initial confidence categories (i. e. , 0100%) to five (i. e. , 0 20%, 3040%, 5060%, 7080%, 90100%) (see Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin et al. , 1996).Moreover, because foils are known in advance to be innocent, we excluded target- 123 342 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?present, foil identifications from our calibration analyses (see Brewer & Wells, 2006). However, as there was no actual police shadowed in the target-absent lineups, all false identifications of foils from target-absent lineups were included in calibration analyses, a practice that necessarily inflates the degree of cocksureness. 1 Table 1 presents the distributions of confidence ratings for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed conditions, according to identification response.Given the well-documented differences in the CA rela- tion for choosers and non-choosers, we present CA calibration analyses separately for these two groups (see Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 1). In both retention interval conditions, meaningful CA relationships for choosers are ap parent. Visual inspection of choosers CA calibration functions (Fig. 1) shows increasing accuracy as confidence increases for both retention intervals. Moreover, in the upper section of the confidence scale, the immediate and delayed condition curves are almost identical.While reli- ance on visual inspection may appear to lack rigor, the threadbare error bars for each confidence interval permit an estimation of the stability of the results obtained. Over- lapping standard error bars (evident for the two highest confidence intervals of the chooser curves) denote non- reliable differences between groups. Table 1 presents the diagnosticity ratios for each con- fidence category. Diagnosticity ratios indicate the likely reliability of an identification decision, in this case, according to the level of confidence expressed.Chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the likelihood that a guilty suspect will be identified to the likelihood that an innocent suspect will be identified. The procedu re for separating suspect from foil identifications from target-absent lineups is complex. In contrast to the forensic setting, the labora- tory setting provides no basis for designating any particular member of a target-absent lineup as the suspect (cf. Brewer & Wells, 2006). Accordingly, we calculated target-absent suspect identification rates by dividing the total number of target-absent false identifications by the number of lineup members (i. e. , eight).Non-chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the probability that the witness responds not- present, given the target is not-present, to the probability that the witness responds not-present, given the target is present. Both retention interval conditions show increased diagnosticity at each successive confidence interval. Thus, when a suspect is identified, an increase in witness 1 Including only target-replacement identifications as false identifi- cations from target-absent lineups resulted in only 13 and 6% (in the immediate an d delayed conditions, respectively) of all target-absent misidentifications being available for calibration analyses.Split over the five confidence intervals, these data is insufficient to provide stable estimates of calibration. Table 1 Diagnosticity ratios and number of responses (according to response type) for each confidence interval, for choosers and non- choosers in the immediate and delayed testing conditions ? Condition & response Confidence level (%) 020 3040 5060 7080 90100 boilers suit fastchoosers sub ascribable 5 identification Foil identification 1 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticityratio 6. 68 SEDiagnosticity 2. 71 Delayedchoosers Correct 1 identificationFoil identification 5 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 56 SEDiagnosticity 1. 66 Immediatenon-choosers Correct rejection 6 irrational rejection 4 Overall 10 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 01 SEDiagnosticity 0. 57 Delayednon-choosers 12 40 103 90 250 6 18 12 4 41 13 31 43 18 114 31 89 1 58 112 405 8. 87 11. 08 18. 74 37. 79 17. 80 2. 40 1. 91 2. 56 8. 61 1. 49 5 16 39 38 99 5 8 9 3 30 11 25 24 10 79 21 49 72 51 208 4. 02 6. 28 13. 63 20. 47 10. 12 1. 83 1. 52 2. 63 6. 23 1. 11 11 42 91 84 234 2 10 22 14 52 13 52 113 98 286 4. 68 3. 91 4. 23 6. 35 4. 44 5. 91 1. 31 0. 89 1. 71 0. 0 Correct rejection Incorrect rejection Overall Diagnosticity ratio SEDiagnosticity 5 10 25 41 27 108 2 9 16 14 14 55 7 19 41 55 41 163 1. 48 1. 01 1. 23 2. 79 2. 87 1. 92 1. 62 0. 35 0. 30 0. 74 0. 76 0. 25 ? confidence is accompanied by an increase in the probability that the identified suspect is guilty. There are, however, some differences apparent between the two retention interval conditions for choosers. A modified jackknife procedure (Koriat, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980 Mosteller & Tukey, 1968) was performed on the C, O/U, and NRI statistics obtained for each retention interval condition.The jackknife procedure involves repeated calculation of each of the three statistics above, with each calculation omitting data from a different, individual participant. As many calculations are run as there are participants. This permits the calculation of mean and standard error data (Table 2) for the statistics obtained which, in turn, allows an assessment of differences in the relevant measures between groups. While these jackknife mean and standard error data cannot be subjected to inferential testing, they are intended to allow researchers to ? 123Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 343 100 80 60 40 20 Table 2 Calibration (C), overconfidence (O/U), and Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) statistics, for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed testing conditions Measure Statistic C Value Jackknife SE O/U Value Jackknife SE NRI Value Jackknife SE Choosers Non-choosers Immediate Delay Immediate Delay 0. 01 0. 04 0. 00 0. 01 0. 09 0. 19 0. 02 0. 03 0. 10 0. 17 0. 03 0. 05 0. 03 0. 04 0. 01 0. 02 -0. 08 0. 01 0. 02 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 ?Immediate Choo sers Delayed Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 n the immediate condition. This produces differences between conditions in three measures of the CA relation the visual appearance of calibration function, the O/U statistic, and the NRI statistic. First, the calibration curve for the immediate condition flattens out in the lower half of the confidence scale, rather than following the ideal func- tion. Further, the curve for the immediate condition shifts from overconfidence in the higher confidence intervals to underconfidence in the lower confidence intervals, a pattern not observed in the delayed condition.In addition to pro- ducing a visual flattening of the curve, this transition from overconfidence to underconfidence has important effects on two of the statistical measures of the CA relationship. It drives the immediate condition O/U statistic toward its mid-point (i. e. , 0). Consequently, although the immediate condition curve exhibits noticeable underconfidence and overconfidence at the relevant extremes of the confidence scale, this is not reflected in the O/U statistic for that condition, thereby exaggerating the apparent difference in overconfidence between conditions.Finally, as evidenced by the NRI statistics (Table 2), it reduces the overall level of discrimination provided by confidence in the immediate condition. This discrepancy between conditions at the lower confidence extremes is addressed further in the Discussion. The second difference between the CA relations for choosers in the delayed and immediate conditions is evident in the diagnosticity ratios reported for each confidence interval (Table 1). undifferentiated with the reported overall drop in identification accuracy associated with the delayed con- dition, the degree of diagnosticity at each confidence interval is greater in the immediate than delayed condition. Further, although no difference in overconfidence is appar- ent between conditions in the higher confidence brackets, the differe nce in diagnosticity persists. Nonetheless, as outlined above, the finding of increased diagnosticity with increased confidence is consistent (for choosers) across conditions.In sum, the CA relations observed for choosers in the two retention interval conditions differ in terms of the Confidence 100 80 60 40 20 ?Immediate Non-Choosers Delayed Non-Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Confidence Fig. 1 Confidenceaccuracy (CA) calibration curves for choosers (upper panel) and non-choosers (lower panel) in the delayed and immediate testing conditions. Error bars represent standard errors draw inferences in conditions where data violate assump- tions of conventional inferential testing techniques (Sheskin, 2004).Because the jackknife means replicated the original values in every case, only the original values are reported. Inspection of the calibration functions, together with the O/U statistics (Table 2), suggests greater overconfidence for the delayed compared to the immediate condition. Howev er, two aspects of the calibration information justify qualification of this general observation. First, for the two highest confidence categories, the standard error bars for the two functions overlap suggesting no meaningful dif- ference in over/underconfidence.The apply value of this parity at the higher confidence intervals is addressed in the Discussion. Second, the overall difference in over- confidence between conditions is, in fact, exaggerated by underconfidence in the lower half of the calibration curve 123 % Correct % Correct 344 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 ?general overconfidence and discriminability, due primarily to the trend toward underconfidence at low confidence levels in the immediate condition. However, in the upper half of the confidence scale, the conditions produce highly similar calibration functions.For non-choosers, both retention interval conditions produced the typically weak CA relations observed in previous CA calibration research. Further, any vari ations in diagnosticity between confidence levels were small and unsystematic in both conditions. While this absence of resolution might commonly be taken as an indication that a confident rejection should not be given any special status, this needs to be considered in the context of accuracy rates for rejections usually being high. Thus, from an utilise perspective, provided the conditions are such that non-chooser accuracy is high (e. . , unbiased lineup instructions, good encoding conditions), it is important to note that a highly confident rejection is as good a guide to (in)accuracy as a confident ID. Importantly also, an unconfident rejection is also likely to be as accu- rate as a confident ID. The CA correlation patterns are generally in line with previous research (e. g. , Lindsay et al. , 1998 Sporer et al. , 1995). CA correlations of moderate strength were found for choosers in both the immediate (r (405) = 0. 32, p . 001) and delayed conditions (r (209) = 0. 41, p . 001).While these values lie toward the high end of typically reported CA correlations, the relationships are still only moderate in size. self-consistent with previous research, correlations for non-choosers were weak and non-significant in both the immediate (r (286) = . 09, ns) and delayed conditions (r (163) = . 06, ns). DISCUSSION While the dominant perspective in eyewitness identifica- tion research has been that the CA relationship is, at best, a weak one, recent researchunderpinned by theoretically motivated changes in design and analysis techniqueshas demonstrated meaningful CA relationships when certain pre-conditions are met.The present study extends this research, providing an important test of the boundary conditions of the CA relation. Variation in retention interval is (a) theoretically linked to variation in memory quality (and, thus, confidence and accuracy), (b) typical in the forensic setting, and (c) atypical in psychological investigations of the CA relation. Fu rther, the emphasis placed on confidence when assessing the reliability of identification evidence in the forensic setting makes the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship an issue of applied and theoretical relevance.The most striking feature of our examination of the effect of retention interval on the CA relationship is the agreement of the findings across retention interval con- ditions. Consistent with previous calibration research in the eyewitness and face recognition paradigms (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006 Juslin et al. , 1996 Sauerland & Sporer, 2009 Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), confidence and accuracy were meaningfully related for choosers in both the immediate and delayed conditions, particularly in the upper half of the confidence scale.Further, both conditions show systematic increases in diagnosticity with increased witness confidence. Compared to the immediate condition, the delayed condition demonstrated an increase in general overconfidenc e and a decrease in the imperious levels of diagnosticity. However, such differences are equally likely to occur when retention interval is held constant but target stimuli or instructional bias are varied (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006).Of primary importance is the finding that the fundamental nature of the CA relationship, as evidenced by the shape of the calibration functions and the systematic relationship between confidence and diagnosticity, did not vary meaningfully between conditions. As Bruck and Poole (2002) note, albeit it in a different context, when assessing consistency across conditions, patterns of findings are often more informative than individual numbers. While our conclusions may be similar to those of Juslin et al. 1996) in that CA calibration was still evident when the retention interval was extended, our findings add sig- nificantly to our understanding of the effect of retention interval on the CA relation. Whereas there was no evidence that Juslin et al. s r etention interval manipulation affected memory strength, our manipulation clearly affected rec- ognition memory performance and yet evidence of CA calibration persisted. Moreover, CA calibration was evi- dent at the longer retention interval in our study, despite the absence of several methodological features contained in Juslin et al. s research that may have reenforce the CA calibration find at their longer retention interval. This suggests that these idiosyncrasies were not sufficient to affect the CA association. Additionally, by providing data from a field setting using multiple sets of encoding and test materials, our study provides an important pointer to the likely generality of the above conclusions. The improved diagnosticity in both retention interval conditions evident at the upper confidence levels has significant forensic implications.Highly confident identi- fications, when compared to those made with low confidence, are likely to have a greater impact on police inv estigations and jury decision making. For example, in the absence of other compelling evidence, police are more likely to proceed with a case given a highly confident identification than given an identification made with low confidence. Further, compared to an identification made with low confidence, an identification made with high confidence is likely to be more weighty in the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34337347 345 courtroom, and thus exert a more pronounced effect on juror assessments of likely guilt. Thus, it is reassuring that the identification decisions likely to exert the greatest influence in criminal justice system are those for which (a) diagnosticity is greatest and (b) there was no significant variation in CA relationship associated with increased retention interval. We emphasize here, of course, that we are talking only about relationships detected when confi- dence was measured and recorded immediately after the identification, and not when opportunities for influenci ng confidence judgments had occurred.A potentially interesting difference between the CA relations obtained in the two conditions presents in the lower half of the confidence scale for the chooser curves. As previously outlined, while the immediate condition curve exhibited underconfidence in the lower confidence levels, the delayed condition curve maintained its resem- blance to the ideal function (i. e. , low confidence ratings were accompanied by equivalently poor identification performance). As noted earlier, confidence judgments may be shaped not only by memory strength but also by various non-memorial factors.It may be the case that, because the immediate condition provided virtually no time for the memory trace to degrade, very low confidence estimates in this condition reflected the influence of misleading meta- cognitive inferences. In contrast, the delayed condition allowed for significantly greater degradation in memory trace, and, consequently, a greater drop in identifi cation accuracy than did the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, very low confidence was perhaps more likely to reflect poor memory quality and, consequently, predict very poor performance.Thus, in this condition, confidence and accuracy corresponded more closely at the lower confidence levels, and the overall level of confidence-based discrimination increased (as evidenced by the NRI statis- tics). The improved resolution associated with the longer retention interval in the present study supports claims made by Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) that the CA relation (and, in particular, resolution) is likely to be most evident in con- ditions that produce greatest variability in witnesses memory strength.However, given the low number of data points for these confidence categories, any conclusions must be tentative. Moreover, from an applied perspective, the data clearly show that low confidence identifications are associated with low accuracy (regardless of the exis- tence of o ver- or underconfidence). We should note three features of this study that might possibly have influenced the pattern of results obtained. First, despite email reminders to participants in the delay condition, there was still significant attrition.If it turns out that those careful enough to respond were also more conscientiousand, importantly, effectivewhen deter- mining confidence judgments, then it is conceivable that the strength of the CA relation is overestimated in our delay condition. However, we know of no evidence that could sustain an argument either way on this issue. Second, our retention interval manipulation was confounded with method of responding. Participants in the immediate test condition provided their responses during face-to-face interactions with the researcher, while delayed condition participants responded via computer.As previously noted, social influence can undermine the confidenceaccuracy relationship. However, given (a) the similarity of CA rela- tion ships evident between conditions in this experiment and (b) the similarity in CA relationships between the imme- diate condition in this experiment and previous work using similar (i. e. , relatively short though not immediate) reten- tion intervals and non-face-to-face responding (Brewer & Wells, 2006 Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), there is no reason to believe that method of responding exerted a significant effect on the results obtained.Third, for ethical reasons the encoded event in our field study did not involve a crime. Whether this might influence the CA relationship is also not known, though there is no obvious reason why this variable should interact with retention interval. What we do know, of course, is that the most reliable determinant of variations in the degree of over/underconfidence is task difficulty (see Brewer, 2006 Weber & Brewer, 2004), with our various stimuli providing tasks of sufficient difficulty to produce over- rather than under-confidence and, pred ict- ably, greater overconfidence in the delay condition.In sum, this research asked Does an increase in retention interval undermine the meaningful CA relationships reported in recent research? These results suggest not, at least not for retention intervals in the range used here. For choosers in both the delayed and immediate conditions, increased confidence was associated with increased proba- ble accuracy. While this finding is encouraging, one important caveat is required. Although retention interval did not affect the CA relationship observed, many factors capable of distorting the CA relation over time in the forensic setting (e. g. confirmative feedback/interaction with co-witnesses, repeated post-event questioning) were not addressed in our approach. It would be premature to suggest that, in the forensic setting, confidence-based discrimina- tion of accuracy will not ever vary with increased retention interval. Simply increasing retention does not, by itself, seem to dampe n the CA relation, but increased retention intervals may be associated with increased exposure to other factors likely to affect the relationship between con- fidence and accuracy. 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